ATlONAtf 
GINEERIN 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY'  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


AMERICAN 
STATIONARY  ENGINEERING 


A 

Practical  work  which  begins  at  the  Boiler  room  and 

takes  in  the  whole  Power  Plant.     Gives  facts, 

rules  and  general  information  gathered  from 

thirty  years'    practical    experience    as 

running,    erecting    and  designing 

engineer 


Contains  complete  examination  for  a  license 
SECOND    EDITION 


NEW   YORK: 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

132    NASSAU    STREET 

1910 


Copyrighted   1906  by 
THE  DERRY-COLLARD  COMPANY 

Copyrighted   1910  by 
THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


Preface. 

The  writer  bought  a  million-gallon  pumping  engine 
and  the  low  pressure  side  did  not  work  smoothly.  The 
builders  sent  three  experts  to  remedy  the  trouble  at  as 
many  different  times,  but  made  no  improvement.  These 
men  were  sent  without  giving  me  notice,  so  that  I  was 
never  there  to  meet  them. 

I  wrote  the  builders  to  please  not  send  any  more 
experts,  but  if  they  had  a  plain,  practical  man  that  had 
a  fair  knowledge  of  steam  pumps  I  would  be  pleased  to 
meet  him  at  the  station. 

This  is  what  this  book  is  intended  to  be ;  a  plain  talk 
on  every-day  work  about  engines,  boilers  and  their  acces- 
sories. It  is  not  intended  to  be  scientific  or  mathematical. 
I  have  tried  to  put  all  formulas  in  a  simple  form  so  that 
any  one  understanding  plain  arithmetic  can  readily  under- 
stand any  of  them. 

The  writer  commenced  when  books  were  very  scarce 
and  he  has  seen  the  need  of  just  such  a  book  as  this. 
Some  of  the  matter  I  have  been  unable  to  find  in  any 
book  at  the  present  time. 

Some  of  the  subjects  have  been  covered  completely  in 
other  books  devoted  exclusive!)  to  the  particular  branch 
like  the  indicator,  slide  valves,  etc.,  and  these  subjects 
have  not  been  treated  at  length  here. 

5 

203790 


Sometimes  when  questions  are  asked  it  sets  a  man 
thinking  deeper  than  by  just  reading  the  text,  and  a 
large  number  of  questions  has  been  introduced  on  sub- 
jects mentioned  in  the  book.  Direct  answers  have  not 
been  given  in  all  cases,  but  the  reader  can  refer  to 
index  and  learn  what  has  been  done  under  similar 
conditions  and  study  and  determine  what  he  would  do 
under  like  conditions. 

A  number  of  books  are  published  purporting  to  give 
questions  and  answers  before  an  examining  board  when 
applying  for  a  license. 

No  man  can  know  the  questions  that  will  be  asked 
nor  the  answers  that  will  be  required. 

The  examiners  wish  to  learn  how  experienced  a  man 
is  and  the  information  he  has  of  his  own  knowledge. 

A  young  man  can  get  much  information  from  the 
experience  of  practical  men,  but  thrs^must  be  supple- 
mented by  study,  experience  and  research  of  his  own 
if  he  is  to  impress  others  with  his  ability. 

It  will  usually  be  found  .that  thoroughly  well-posted 
men  are  willing  to  give  some  of  their  time  to  imparting 
information  to  those  whom  they  think  will  appreciate  and 
profit  by  it. 

It  is  generally  the  rule  that  it  is  only  those  pos- 
sessing but  a  small  fund  of  knowledge  that  become  so 
important  with  their  small  lore  that  are  churlish  in  the 
matter. 

It  is  the  man  that  is  willing  to  help  others  that  gets 
along  in  life,  and  it  is  this  man  that  will  become  posted 
in  his  business. 

July,  1906.  W.  E.  CRANE. 


The  Boiler  Room. 

V    V    T 

In  a  boiler  room,  neatness  should  be  observed  in 
everything.  The  floor  should  be  kept  clean, — and  for 
this  purpose  a  hose  should  be  conveniently  located, — the 
side  walls  and  top  of  boilers  should  be  cleaned  once  per 
week. 

All  surfaces  in  contact  with  the  fire  should  be  swept 
as  frequently  as  time  will  allow,  but  the  tube  surface 
should  be  cleaned  at  least  twice  per  week. 

With  some  classes  of  boilers,  and  with  fairly  clean, 
soft  water  washing  out  once  in  six  months  may  keep 
them  in  good  condition,  but  the  water  should  be  changed 
every  two  or  three  weeks.  With  some  types  of  water 
tube  boilers,  where  the  water  enters  at  the  front  of  the 
drum,  it  is  frequently  only  necessary  to  let  the  water  run 
out  and  then  turn  on  the  feed  water  full  and  the  water 
will  wash  out  all  deposit  in  the  drum  and  mud-drum. 
With  most  water  tube  and  with  tubular  boilers,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  a  hose,  and  there  should  be  consid- 
erable pressure.  Where  there  is  scale  and  considerable 
mud,  the  boiler  should  be  gone  over  thoroughly  as  fre- 
quently as  the  opportunity  offers. 


Filtration  -  Piping — Testing  Water. 

With  very  muddy  waters  a  filtration  plant  will  pay, 
as  mud  and  clay  are  more  to  be  feared  than  lime. 

With  tubular  boilers  properly  set  and  the  water  fed 
at  the  proper  place,  the  larger  part  of  deposit  will  be 
found  at  the  rear  end,  as  that  is  the  part  with  the  slowest 
circulation. 

In  water  tube  boilers  the  larger  part  will  be  found 
in  the  rear  circulating  tubes,  rear  manifolds  and  rear  end 
of  tubes. 

The  important  things  for  a  man  to  look  after  when 
taking  charge  of  a  set  of  boilers  for  the  first  time  is  to 
see  that  his  water  gauges  are  all  clear  by  blowing  them 
all  out.  Look  his  piping  all  over  and  see  if  there  are  any 
water  pockets  that  would  be  liable  to  collect  water  and 
let  it  over  in  a  body ;  note  the  position  and  design  of  all 
the  stop  valves  and  the  manner  of  getting  to  them  in  case 
of  emergency ;  look  the  water  piping  over  and  the  source 
of  supply  for  the  pumps ;  the  type  of  pumps,  and  try  them 
to  see  that  they  work  properly  and  that  there  are  no  broken 
valves ;  note  the  heater,  or  the  absence  of  any,  and  test 
the  water  to  see  if  it  is  hard. 

This  can  be  fairly  well  decided  by  putting  some  in  a 
pail  and  washing  the  hands  with  soap.  If  the  water  is 
soft  there  will  be  nothing  but  soap  suds  on  top ;  if  hard, 
there  will  be  a  scum  formed  on  top.  A  chemical  analysis 
will  be  required  to  determine  the  kind  of  impurity  and 
quantity.  Silica  means  sand  and  the  like,  while  this 
mixed  with  alumina  and  iron  means  clay  and  a  dirty 
boiler. 

The  safety  valves  should  be  looked  to.  If  lever 
valves,  they  should  be  raised  to  see  if  they  respond 
readily  and  if  they  leak  after  use. 

If  "pop"   valves,   bearing   down   on   the    lever   will 

8 


Safety  Valves — Gage  Glasses. 

cause  them  to  blow,  if  not  set  for  too  high  a  pressure.  At 
the  first  opportunity  the  steam  should  be  raised  to  the 
pressure  at  which  it  is  desired  to  blow  and  see_that  they 
blow  freely  from  the  pressure.  Note  the  blow-off  pipe 
and  valves  and  try  the  valves.  The  grates  and  furnace 
can  be  attended  to  the  first  time  the  fire  is  out.  Note 
condition  of  brick  work,  connection  of  flues,  etc.,  and 
see  if  there  /  are  any  large  cracks  for  air  to  enter. 

When  firing  up  in  morning  be  sure  to  try  the  water 
gauges  the  first  thing,  and  see  that  everything  about  them 
is  free,  and  that  there  is  no  stoppage  at  top  of  column, 
provided  the  water  goes  down  in  the  glass  and  raises 
partially. 

On  modern  glass  gauges  there  are  levers  put  across 
the  stop  cocks  and  chain  attached  to  both  top  and  bottom 
so  that  they  can  be  closed  from  the  floor.  These  are 
fastened  to  the  stem  with  a  set-screw.  Should  this  set- 
screw  become  loose  when  the  top  is  closed  it  will  not 
open  and  the  gauge  will  show  nearly  full  of  water  until 
the  water  is  entirely  out  of  the  water  column.  Any  time 
that  the  glass  gauge  shows  different  from  the  gauge  cocks, 
either  this  has  hapened  or  *he  connections  are  closed. 
There  was  one  case  on  a  ne\v  boiler  where  the  cocks  and 
glass  showed  different,  the  glass  showing  nearly  full, 
while  the  cocks  showed  steam,  and  it  was  found  that 
the  top  glass  gauge  fitting  had  no  hole  through  it  and  no 
valve  seat. 

Firing. 

When  using  anthracite  coal  Professor  Thurston's 
rule  is  correct — that  the  fire  should  be  five  times  as  thick 
as  the  average  piece  of  coal.  This  applies  to  all  sizes. 

With  a  fire  on  a  flat  grate  much  thicker  than  the 
above  there  will  be  a  tendency  for  the  coal  to  melt  and 


Thickness  of  Fire — Clinkers. 

form  an  excessive  amount  of  clinker,  and  if  much  thinner, 
too  much  air  will  pass  through. 

Care  should  be  used  never  to  poke  or  molest  a  hard 
coal  fire,  except  when  cleaning,  and  then  the  fire  should 
not  be  reduced  too  thin,  even  if  all  the  clinkers  are  not 
removed,  as  when  disturbed,  and  too  thin,  the  fire  will 
go  out. 

It  is  important  that  the  fire  should  be  kept  of  uni- 
form thickness,  and  that  this  be  done  with  the  shovel, 
and  never  with  hoe  or  poker. 

After  cleaning  a  fire  and  the  first  layer  of  coal  is 
ignited,  it  is  sometimes  beneficial  to  run  a  thin  slice  bar 
along  just  on  top  of  the  grates,  and  return  in  the  same 
manner,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  body  of  the  fire. 
This  loosens  up  any  clinker  that  may  be  forming,  and 
keeps  the  air  space  open.  This  slice  bar  is  shown  in  Fig. 
i.  The  cross-piece  can  be  12  to  15  inches  long  and  il/2 
to  2  inches  wide.  It  should  not  be  more  than  ^  inch 
thick. 

Clinkers  that  form  on  the  brick  are  most  easily 
removed  after  cleaning  fires  at  night,  when  they  are 
cooling  off.  They  cool  on  the  outside  first  and  contract, 
which,  in  a  measure,  helps  to  pull  them  from  the  wall, 
and,  being  in  a  partially  plastic  condition  at  the  wall  at 
that  time,  they  are  separated  with  little  injury  to  the 
wall.  The  hard  case  that  is  formed  on  the  outside  of 
the  clinker  makes  them  sufficiently  rigid  for  a  poker  or 
breaking-up  bar  to  get.  a  good  hold  on  them.  The 
woman's  method  is  to  put  oyster  shells  in  the  fire  next  the 
brick. 

* 

Should  a  slice  bar  be  run  under  the  fire  just  top 
of  grates  every  time  the  fire  is  replenished,  the  fire  will 
be  kept  fairly  clean,  so  that  but  little  cleaning  is  necessary 

10 


Tools  for  Cleaning  Fires. 

at  night.  This  will  make  hot  and  warped  grates,  unless 
the  ash  pit  is  kept  cool.  This  can  be  done  with  water 
in  the  ash  pit  or  a  small  amount  of  steam.  -A  small 
amount  of  steam  will  materially  reduce  the  size  and  hard- 
ness of  the  clinker. 

A  hoe,  shown  below,  is  a  favorite  for  cleaning  fire. 
This  hoe  is  round  on  top,  and  by  turning  this  side 
down  and  shoving  the  coal  off  the  ash,  it  will  do  it  much 
neater,  get  the  coal  off  quicker  and  with  less  ash  in  the 
coal  than  when  using  the  straight  side. 


D 


Fig.  I.    Hoe  (at  top) — Slice  Bar — Breaking  up  Bar. 

The  better  plan  is  to  have  a  bar  made  something 
like  a  boat  oar,  with  the  blade  15  inches  long  and  4  inches 
wide.  Push  all  the  coal  from  one  side  of  the  furnace  to 
the  other  side,  pull  out  the  ashes,  then  push  all  the  coal 
on  to  the  clean  grates,  and  when  the  ashes  are  removed 
the  fire  can  be  leveled  off  and  have  a  perfectly  clean  fire. 

The  best  plan  is  to  have  dumping  grates  with  front 
and  rear  sections,  push  the  fire  back,  dump  the  front 
part,  pull  the  fire  forward  and  dump  the  rear.  This 
leaves  a  clean  fire  and  is  very  quickly  done. 

ii 


Soft  Coal  and  Smoke. 

A  "Lazy  bar"  made  from  a  piece  of  24 -inch  iron 
or  of  gas  pipe  and  arranged  to  lie  across  the  front  of 
the  door  so  as  to  support  the  weight  of  the  hoe,  makes 
the  work  much  easier,  both  in  cleaning  the  fire  and 
hauling  the  ashes  out  of  the  ash-pit. 

When  it  comes  to  burning  the  soft  coal  the  problem 
is  altogether  different.  These  coals  cake  together  and 
the  air  can  only  get  through  where  there  are  breaks; 
there  the  fire  burns  rapidly  and  soon  makes  a  large  hole 
that  allows  too  much  air  to  pass  through,  which  has  a 
cooling  effect.  These  coals  contain  a  large  amount  of 
hydrocarbon  gases  that  distill  at  a  low  temperature,  and 
unless  the  firing  is  done  so  that  they  distill  slowly,  a 
large  amount  will  pass  up  the  chimney  without  imparting 
the  heat  to  the  boiler  that  would  result  from  its  proper 
combustion. 

Improper  firing,  when  the  fires  are  run  hot,  results 
in  the  emission  of  a  large  amount  of  smoke.  It  requires 
but  a  small  amount  of  carbon  to  color  a  large  amount  of 
gas;  so  that  the  smoke  alone  is  not  a  great  waste,  but 
it  indicates  that  there  is  a  great  amount  of  gas,  uncon- 
sumed,  going  away  with  it. 

During  the  Civil  War,  coal,  like  everything  else, 
got  very  high.  At  one  time  and  place  coal  was  $16  per 
ton  delivered.  At  that  time  the  buckwheat  sizes  were 
unknown,  nut  being  the  smallest  size,  and  all  smaller 
being  thrown  away. 

One  man  procured  a  patent  for  a  steam  blower 'to 
burn  yard  screenings,  which  included  everything  below 
nut,  fine  dust  and  all. 

The  blower  was  made  by  making  a  circle  of  hoop 
iron,  inside  of  which  was  a  center  with  %-inch  pipes 
radiating  therefrom.  In  these  pipes  i-i6-inch  holes  were 

12 


An  Old  Time  Blower. 

drilled.  The  steam  part  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  center 
supported  a  little  fan  blower,  the  blades  being  of  the 
same  number  as  the  steam  pipes  and  the  steam  jets  blow- 
ing against  these  blades  made  a  steam  turbine  and  a  fan 
all  in  one.  It  revolved  with  a  high  velocity,  and  screen- 
ings were  burned  very  satisfactorily.  Great  stress  was 
laid  by  the  inventor  on  the  high  velocity  of  the  fan. 

Such  a  fan  could  not  be  durable,  while  the  pipes 
would  last  for  years,  and  when  the  fan  went  to  pieces  it 
was  found  that  the  blower  consisting  of  steam  jets  did  the 
business  just  the  same. 


D 


Fig.  ^.      An  Old  Steam  Fan  Blower. 

Since  that  time  there  have  been  innumerable  inven- 
tions of  steam  blowers  for  burning  small  anthracite,  and, 
of  course,  all  of  them  improvements  like  the  "improve- 
ments" on  George  H.  Corliss'  engine. 

They  sell  for  all  kinds  of  prices,  depending  a  good 
deal  on  the  talking  ability  of  the  maker. 

A  home-made  affair  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  pipes 
are  ^  inch,  are  set  3  inches  apart  and  have  i-i6-inch 
holes,  3  inches  apart.  The  opening  in  the  wall  of  the 
ash  pit  should  be  3  inches  wider  than  the  blower  on 
each  side. 


Home-made  Blower. 

As  anthracite  deadens  rapidly  when  stirred,  the 
cleaning  should  be  done  quickly,  leveled  off,  the  fresh 
coal  put  on  and  draft  given  as  quickly  as  possible. 

It  is  not  possible  to  keep  a  fire  with  small  sizes  clean 
with  a  slice  bar,  as,  if  a  fire  is  run  so  as  to  burn  12  to 
15  pounds  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  the 
clinkers  will  be  too  large  to  go  through  a  grate  opening 
of  suitable  size  for  such  coal. 


«_j     o 


Fig.    3.      A   Home-made  Blower. 

Where  only  a  flat  grate  is  provided,  one  method  is  to 
push  the  coal  back  against  the  bridge  wall,  haul  out  the 
ashes  in  front,  pull  the  coal  down  in  front  and  pull  the 
ash  and  clinker  from  the  rear  over  the  coal.  This  leaves 
some  ash  and  clinker  in  the  coal. 

Various  methods  have  been  tried  to  prevent  this 
waste,  and  many,  also,  to  prevent  smoke.  It  has  been 
assumed  by  many  that  if  the  smoke  was  prevented  the 
economy  was  sure.  Among  the  early  methods  was  that 
of  admitting  large  quatities  of  air  over  the  fire.  This 


Smoke  Prevention — Pulverized  Coal. 

plan,  carried  so  far  as  to  completely  prevent  all  smoke, 
will  result  in  loss ;  although  if  properly  applied,  and  the 
smoke  reduced  to  a  dull  brown,  there  may  be  -a  good 
saving  in  fuel. 

One  plan  described  by  C.  W.  Williams  was  the  down 
draft  system,  which  consists  in  taking  in  the  air  through 
the  furnace  doors  and  down  through  the  fire,  where  the 
gases  pass  over  a  bed  of  incandescent  fuel,  chiefly  from 
the  fire  that  has  fallen  through  the  grates. 

This  style  of  firing  cokes  the  green  coal  top  of  the 
fire  and  requires  some  slicing  to  let  the  air  through,  and 
also  requires  water  grates  as  the  fire  must  pass  between 
the  grates.  A  furnace  of  this  type  should  be  entirely 
outside  of  the  boiler.  Where  the  grate  is  under  the 
boiler,  the  cold  air  rushing  in  at  the  furnace  door  cools 
the  boiler  at  that  point  and  sets  up  a  strain. 

A  later  form  on  somewhat  the  same  principles  is  to 
feed  the  coal  under  the  fire  with  a  screw. 

Another  idea  that  has  been  tried,  but  not  with  much 
enthusiasm  for  boiler  work,  is  to  reduce  the  coal  to  fine 
powder  and  blow  it  into  the  furnace.  On  account  of  the 
power  required  to  pulverize  the  coal  it  has  not  met  with 
much  success.  To  pulverize  1,000  pounds  of  coal  per 
hour  and  blow  it  into  the  furnace  would  require  about 
15  horse-power. 

In  the  cement  industry  powdered  fuel  is  used  almost 
exclusively.  The  kilns  rotate  so  that  a  grate  is  inad- 
missible and  the  heat  required  is  over  3,000  degrees. 
Pulverized  fuel  blown  in  is  the  ideal  plan.  Where  the 
air  is  so  throughly  mixed  with  this  finely  pulverized  fuel 
no  more  than  the  theoretical  amount  of  air  is  required 
and  the  combustion  can  be  carried  on  without  a  particle 
of  smoke. 

15 


About  Firing. 

Anthracite  coal  cannot  be  used  for  this  purpose,  gas 
coal  being  the  best  of  all  the  soft  coals. 

One  of  the  best  methods  when  firing  by  hand  is 
the  coking  plan.  The  favorite  plan  is  to  have  a  plate 
at  the  front  of  the  furnace,  put  the  necessary  quantity  of 
fresh  coal  on  to  this  plate;  the  gases  will  distill  slowly 
and,  in  passing  over  the  fire,  will  be  consumed.  When 
the  coal  has  parted  with  the  volatile  gases  it  can  be 
spread  over  the  grates  with  a  hoe  and  will  produce  very 
little  smoke. 

Where  the  fires  are  run  thin  with  hand  firing  and 
the  coal  is-  spread  thin  all  over  the  furnace,  the  gases 
are  distilled  too  rapidly  for  the  furnace,  cooled  by  the 
addition  to  the  fresh  fuel  to  completely  consume. 

Keeping  the  fire  somewhat  thicker  and  "patching" 
the  fire — that  is,  throwing  the  coal  so  as  to  fill  up  the 
holes — will  result  in  the  loss  of  a  large  amount  of  gas 
unconsumed. 

Prevention  of  smoke  has  received  a  large  amount 
of  attention  of  late  years  because  of  the  growing  use 
of  soft  coal.  One  plan  is  to  put  in  small  steam  jets 
over  the  fire;  the  valves  to  same  opened  when  the  door 
is  opened  by  a  suitable  connection.  Then,  by  another 
device,  these  valves  are  slowly  closed  automatically,  the 
object  being  to  be  sure  that  the  steam  is  turned  on,  and 
kept  only  when  there  is  fresh  coal  put  on  and  during 
the  period  of  smoky  fire. 

The  better  method  of  firing  the  soft  coal  is  to  put 
the  coal  on  heavy  on  one  side  of  the  furnace.  Just 
before  the  other  side  needs  replenishing  use  a  breaking- 
up  bar,  as  shown  in  Fig.  I.  This  bar  is  run  along  the 
top  of  the  grates  and  the  coke  raised  easily,  so  as  to 
break  it  up  as  finely  as  possiblbe,  but  not  in  such  a  man- 

16 


A  Good  Plan  of  Firing. 

ner  as  to  throw  out  great  pieces  and  leave  large  holes. 
The  bar  should  be  of  steel,  i  to  ij^  inches  diameter, 
according  to  the  length  of  the  furnace.  It  should  be 
about  3  feet  longer  than  the  grate.  It  requires  a  little 
practice  and  patience  to  learn  to  do  this  easily,  but  if 
handled  right,  it  is  easily  done  and  the  fire  kept  even. 


Fig.   4.      Firing  Soft  Coal — Top  View. 

After  the  coke  on  one  side  has  been  broken,  then  cover 
the  other  side  in  the  same  manner. 

For  a  furnace  7  feet  square  the  coal  would  be  put 
on  one  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  nine  shovelfuls  with  No. 
6  scoop. 

Firing  in  this  manner,  the  smoke  will  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  but  where  there  are  city  laws  regarding 


Mechanical  Stokers. 

smoke,  recourse  would  be  necessary  to  the  steam  jets 
on  top  of  the  fire.  The  smoke  will  come  only  from  the 
part  that  is  broken  up,  and  not  from  the  fresh  coal. 

Another  important  thing  is :  With  coal  spread  even 
and  light  over  a  thin  fire,  the  evaporation  of  water  was 
9.81  pounds  for  each  pound  of  coal  from  212  degrees  of 
feed  water  to  steam  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

With  the  coking  fire,  as  indicated,  the  evaporation 
was  10.63  pounds. 


Fig.    5.      Sectional  View  of  Stoker. 


An  afternoon  was  spent  in  a  boiler  house  having 
stokers  like  Fig.  5.  Some  of  the  boilers  were  being  run 
above  their  rating,  while  two  were  running  light,  but  not 
a  particle  of  smoke  came  from  the  chimney.  In  furnaces 
where  the  fire  was  hot  the  fire  was  a  white,  incandescent 
flame. 

18 


Chemicals  for  Coal. 

With  this  stoker  there  is  an  opening  under  the  coal 
hopper,  where  a  slice  bar  can  be  put  down  under  the 
fire  to  break  it  up  if  necessary,  sometimes  an  important 
item. 

Occasionally  a  man  will  come  along  with  a  chem- 
ical, which  he  will  dissolve  in  water  and  sprinkle  over 
coal,  and  will  show  you  the  coal  takes  fire  almost  as 
readily  as  wood,  and  will  give  off  more  flame  with  hard 
coal  than  when  the  coal  is  used  without  it.  He  usually 
succeeds  in  selling  large  amounts  for  a  snug  sum. 

A  friend  who  thought  of  taking  an  agency  for  such 
a  mixture  wanted  the  writer  to  make  a  test.  The  test 
showed  that  more  fuel  was  required  with  it  than  with 
the  untreated  coal. 

A  short  time  after  this  the  company  had  a  cargo 
of  coal  to  use  that  had  been  sunk  in  salt  water  and 
raised  again.  It  burned  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
chemically  treated  coal.  Salt  may  not  be  the  chemical 
used,  but  salt  will  do  the  same  work. 

This  can  be  tried  in  the  kitchen  stove.  When  new 
coal  is  put  on  sprinkle  on  a  little  salt  and  note  how 
quickly  the  coal  becomes  ignited  and  the  nice  flame. 

Boiler  Feeding. 

In  feeding  boilers,  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep 
the  water  level  uniform,  for  two  reasons — first,  so  that 
the  water  shall  come  from  the  heater  as  hot  as  possible, 
and,  second,  if  the  water  level  is  continually  changing 
the  weight  in  the  boiler  is  changing  with  it,  which  sub- 
jects the  boiler  to  different  bending  strains. 

Should  the  water  be  found  low  after  an  absence  for  a 
time,  and  the  pump  has  been  running  and  supplying  the 

19 


Feeding  the  Boiler. 

usual  amount  of  water,  the  water  cannot  be  very  low 

unless  there  is  some  leak  of  water  from  the  boiler,  or  from 

some  person  opening  a  steam  valve  and  drawing  of  large 

quantities  of  steam.     If  the  latter,  the  condition  of  the 

fire  will  indicate  it,  if  there  be  an  automatic  damper.     If 

the  damper  be  regulated  by  hand,  the  steam  will  be  low. 

.%  covering  the  fire,  either  with  fresh  coal  or  ashes,  all 

^danger  of  further  overheating  will  cease.     The  steam, 

Uiowever,  will  run  down  rapidly  and  load  will  be  thrown 

off  the  engine,  as  speed  cannot  be  maintained,  so  that  it 

is  not  important  that  the  engine  should  continue  to  run. 

We  have  the  following  conditions:  After  the  fire  is 
covered  the  circulation  in  the  boiler  ceases  and  the  water 
level  is  slightly  lowered.  There  is  a  slight  circulation, 
but  in  the  same  form  as  an  ordinary  kettle,  if  the  engine 
continues  to  run ;  but  the  water  level  will  lower  gradually 
as  it  cools  down. 

Letting  the  "pump  continue  to  operate  will,  under 
the  new  conditions,  slowly  raise  the  water  line  if  its  speed 
be  maintained.  Should  the  pump  slow  down  with  the 
decreasing  pressure  the  water  will  not  rise  until  load  is 
thrown  off  the  engine ;  after  that  it  will  rise. 

Opening  the  safety  valve  or  any  other  valve  will  raise 
the  water  at  first,  but  it  will  be  very  much  lowered  after 
the  steam  pressure  is  reduced. 

Suppose  there  be  100  pounds  steam  pressure  and 
the  boiler  contains  6,000  pounds  of  water,  the  tempera- 
ture of  water  will  be  341°,  or  a  little  over  341  heat  units. 
If  no  water  goes  into  the  boiler,  but  steam  is  all  blown 
down  to  atmospheric  pressure,  and  212°  temperature  of 
the  water. 

Six  thousand  pounds  of  water,  with  341  heat  units 
per  pound,  will  be  2,046,000  heat  units  in  the  water. 


20 


Heat  Units — Duplex  Pumps. 

Six  thousand  pounds  of  water,  with  212  heat  units 
per  pound,  will  be  1,272,000  heat  units  in  the  water. 

The  difference  between  the  two  is  774,000  heat  units, 
which  has  been  given  up  in  evaporating  water  that  has 
gone  off  in  form  of  steam,  966  H.  U.  being  the  amount 
per  pound  required  to  evaporate  the  water.  774,000-1- 
966=800  pounds,  which  is  the  amount  of  water  that  has 
been  evaporated  from  6,000  pounds  of  water  at  100 
pounds  pressure  in  reducing  the  pressure  to  the  atmos- 
phere, or  13  per  cent. 

This  is  one  of  the  points  that  examining  boards 
make  a  strong  point  on,  but  they  are  not  of  the  same  idea. 
One  board  will  want  the  engine  and  pump  stopped  and 
let  all  valves  remain  as  they  are.  Another  will  want  the 
engine  and  pump  left  running,  while  still  another  will 
want  the  engine  and  pump  stopped  and  safety  valve 
opened. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  above  refers  to  a 
single  boiler.  When  there  is  a  battery  of  boilers  it  is 
evident  that  the  stop  valve  on  the  offending  boiler  must  be 
closed,  and  then  the  only  complication  is  as  to  the  policy 
of  opening  the  safety  valve  or  not. 

With  a  shell  boiler  there  should  be  a  fusible  plug  in 
the  rear  head.  This  plug  should  be  filled  with  pure  tin 
that  melts  at  440°.  If  this  plug  has  not  melted,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  water  has  not  fallen  low  enough,  or  that  the 
fire  was  not  hot  enough  to  do  any  harm. 

Pumps  for  Boiler  Feeding. 

A  duplex  pump  will  produce  less  strain  and  shaking 
of  pipes  than  a  single  pump. 

It  seems  strange  at  this  late  day  that  there  can  be 


21 


Pumps  that  Pound. 

found  books  and  men  that  will  claim  that  a  power  pump 
is  a  cheaper  method  of  feeding  a  boiler  than  a  steam 
pump,  regardless  of  conditions.  Where  non-condensing 
engines  are  used  it  is  true;  but  not  with  compound 
engines. 

One  place  may  be  taken  as  a  sample. 

This  place  has  a  number  of  engines  and  boiler  plants 
and  the  manager  somewhere  having  read  that  power 
pumps  are  more  economical  has  put  in  power  pumps 
and  taken  the  feed,  either  from  hot  wells  with  water  at 
no  degrees,  and  in  some  instances  right  from  cold 
streams,  and  put  the  same  through  economizers. 

A  power  pump  is  not  flexible  and  runs  at  its  max- 
imum and  the  surplus  must  be  pumped  against  the  150 
to  170  pounds  pressure  and  go  to  waste.  The  suction 
can  be  throttled,  but  will  make  a  pounding  pump. 

It  is  only  with  non-condensing  engines  that  power 
pumps  are  the  cheaper  to  use  as  with  a  condensing  plant 
the  heater  will  usually  condense  all  the  exhaust  from 
the  pumps,  etc.,  and  all  the  heat  from  the  steam  is  car- 
ried back  to  the  boilers,  while  if  the  pumps  are  driven 
from  the  main  engine  or  from  motor,  the  latent  heat  of 
steam  producing  the  power  goes  out  with  the  condensing 
water. 

In  the  place  mentioned  they  were  running  small 
engines  driving  dynamos,  the  engines  using  not  less  than 
5  pounds  of  coal  per  horse-power,  then  driving  the  power 
pump  by  motor  and  half  the  water  pumped  up  to  150 
pounds  pressure  going  to  waste,  and  then  pumping  cold 
water  to  the  economizer,  which  delivered  it  to  the  boilers 
at  less  than  180  degrees. 

In  two  cases  the  pumps  were  driven  by  belts  from 
the  main  engine,  the  steam  from  the  condenser  pumps 


22 


Scale  Removing  Solvents. 

going  out  to  heat  up  the  river. 

Had  they  used  steam  pumps  and  put  the  exhaust 
from  the  boiler  feed  and  condenser  through  a  heater, 
then  through  the  economizer,  they  could  have  delivered 
the  water  to  boilers  at  300  degrees.  With  the  water 
going  to  the  economizer  cold,  or  nearly  so,  the  tubes 
sweat  and  the  soot  cakes  on  to  the  tubes,  breaking  the 
scrapers  and  rendering  the  economizer  but  of  little  value. 

Scale  in  Boilers. 

Where  water  contains  lime,  some  agent  should  be 
employed  to  neutralize  it,  which  can  be  done  with  a 
carbonate  of  lime.  Kerosene  will  sometimes  do  this  very 
nicely,  and  is  a  handy  dissolvent,  because  it  can  feed 
constantly  in  the  same  manner  as  cylinder  oil.  Sal-soda 
is  a  good  neutralizer,  but  when  carbonate  and  sulphate 
both  are  present  there  is  need  of  a  strong  astringent. 
This  is  found  in  tannic  acid.  Tannin  can  be  procured 
in  "japonica"  that  comes  from  Japan,  or  from  "cutch," 
which  is  acacia  catechu,  and  comes  from  the  East  Indies. 
Gambier  is  another  form,  and  comes  from  Africa. 

To  make  this  preparation  ready  for  use,  take  50 
pounds  of  sal-soda  and  30  pounds  of  japonica,  or  cutch ; 
put  in  any  old  barrel  that  will  hold  about  50  ballons ;  fill 
half  full  of  water  and  boil  until  dissolved,  then  fill  in 
water. 

If  a  water  tube  boiler  is  badly  scaled,  put  in  a 
gallon  of  the  mixture  for  each  100  horse-power  for 
three  or  four  days,  at  which  time  most  of  the  scale 
should  be  removed,  when  tke  quantity  can  be  reduced 
until  the  right  amount  is  ascertained. 

With  a  shell  boiler  more  care  is  necessary,  as  it 
throws  down  the  scale  very  fast,  so  that  the  preparation 

23 


Electrical  Boiler  Cleaner. 

should  not  be  put  in  until  two  or  three  days  before  clean- 
ing, otherwise  enough  scale  might  accumulate  over  the 
fire  sheets  to  burn  them. 

These  preparations  when  made  up  and  sold  under 
fancy  names,  are  sold  for  about  60  cents  per  gallon, 
which  makes  kerosene  a  cheap  substitute. 

The  sal-soda  should  be  procured  for  less  than  2 
cents  per  pound,  and  the  crude  cutch  or  japonica  for  not 
to  exceed  6  cents,  so  that  it  will  cost  less  than  10  cents 
per  gallon. 

There  are  a  number  of  makers  of  scale  resolvents 
that  will  analyze  the  water  and  mix  chemicals  accurately 
to  do  the  required  work. 

Boiler    Cleaning. 

In  about  1865  there  was  an  electric  arrangement 
invented  to  charge  the  metal  with  an  electric  current, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

This  consisted  of  a  number  of  copper  points  radiat- 
ing from  a  common  center  and  from  ten  to  twelve  inches 
in  diameter.  This  was  placed  inside  and  near  the  top 
of  the  boiler  about  four  feet  from  the  front  end,  the 
points  nearly  touching  the  shell.  From  the  center  a 
wire  was  led  to  an  insulated  plug  about  the  same  distance 
from  rear  of  boiler  and  thence  out  to  a  battery.  The 
boiler  by  this  means  was  kept  charged  with  an  electric 
current  and  was  free  from  scale.  Sometimes  little  par- 
ticles would  be  found  as  thick  as  paper,  but  these  were 
rare. 

This  instrument  was  attached  to  a  boiler  for  $80,  and 
because  people  thought  the  price  exorbitant  very  few 
were  applied.  All  the  neighbors  paid  as  much  per  year 
for  scale  solvents. 

24 


Potatoes  as  a  Boiler  Cleaner. 

The  feed  and  blow-off  in  this  boiler  was  through  a 
i  ]/2  -inch  pipe  in  the  front  head,  a  connection  common 
in  those  days;  there  was  no  hand  hole  in  the  rear  head, 
and  from  all  that  could  be  seen  the  boiler  was  perfectly 
clean.  After  a  time  a  hand  hole  was  cut  in  the  rear 
head  and  about  two  bushels  of  dirt  was  found  banked 
up  against  it.  A  bottom  blow-off  remedied  all  this. 

Some  years  afterward  the  engineer  had  occasion 
to  want  something  that  would  keep  the  scale  from  form- 
ing in  boilers  and  wrote  to  his  former  employers  for  the 


Fig.  6.      Electric  Boiler  Cleaner.      1865. 

name  of  the  maker,  asking  also  if  it  continued  to  do  good 
work.  He  received  a  reply  that  the  battery  got  out  of 
order  and  it  had  been  disconnected,  and  that  a  half 
bushel  of  potatoes  put  in  the  boiler  each  week  would  do 
for  compounds. 

For  the  neutralizing  of  the  scale-forming  elements 
in  the  water  there  have  been  numberless  compounds  pre- 
pared, but  most  good  ones  have  been  expensive.  Kero- 
sene oil  has  been  used  as  much  as  any  one  thing,  fed  in 
the  same  way  as  cylinder  oil  in  a  steam  cylinder,  and  in 
many  cases  has  given  excellent  results. 

25 


Utilizing  Waste  Heat. 

Probably  the  most  extensively  used  and  at  the  same 
time  the  cheapest  is  the  carbonate  of  soda.  This  acts  on 
carbonate  of  lime,  rendering  it  soluble  in  water  and  in  a 
state  where  it  will  not  bake.  The  carbonic  acid  takes 
up  by  the  alkaline  carbonate  is  liberated  again  by  heat 
and  the  soda  is  in  its  original  state  and  ready  to  act 
again  as  before,  which  accounts  for  the  necessity  of 
using  such  a  small  quantity.  A  receptacle  should  be 
made  for  it  and  after  disolving  it  should  be  fed  contin- 
uously. From  one  to  two  pounds  per  100  horse-power 
boiler  per  day  will  do  the  work  in  fair  shape.  .  Soda  ash 
will  require  more;  caustic  soda  less. 

When  it  comes  to  feeding  water  with  clay  and  lime, 
and  in  some  cases  saline  matter,  there  are  but  two  ways  ; 
a  surface  condenser  or  an  efficient  filter.  Where  surface 
condensers  are  used,  vertical  engines  are  desirable,  and 
sometimes  necessary,  as  will  be  mentioned  later  under  the 
subject  of  cylinder  oils. 

Special  Boiler  Setting. 

Figure  7  represents  a  tubular  boiler  set  to  utilize 
waste  heat  from  a  steel  furnace.  The  cut  shows  the 
original  setting.  There  was  a  9-inch  space  under  the 
boiler  and  the  waste  gases  could  go  through  the  tubes 
and  under  the  shell.  They  preferred  to  go  under  the 
shell,  and  made  but  little  steam. 

The  boilers  were  then  let  down  on  to  the  brick  and 
the  space  under  the  boiler  entirely  closed,  thus  causing 
all  the  gases  to  go  through  the  tubes.  This  raised  the 
steaming  capacity  over  30  per  cent.,  but  still  there  was 
not  sufficient  steam  made  from  the  waste  heat  for  the 
work  required.  A  battery  of  boilers  were  put  in  to  be 
fired  by  hand,  gases  going  under  the  boiler  and  through 

26 


Cooling  Boilers  for  Cleaning. 

the  tubes  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  over  the  top  to 
chimney.  As  there  was  a  good  draft  and  egg  coal  was 
burned,  these  boilers  would  make  a  great  deal  more 
steam  than  those  with  the  waste  heat,  and  there  were 
those  in  authority  who  thought  that  was  the  only  way 
to  set  a  boiler,  and  that  if  the  first  boilers  were  set  that 
way,  the  boilers  requiring  coal  could  be  shut  down.  So 
these  boilers  were  raised  to  their  original  positions, 
arranged  so  the  gases  would  go  under,  then  through  the 


Big.    7.      Boilers  Set  to  Utilize  Waste  Heat. 

tubes,  then  over  the  top,  and  they  did  not  do  as  well  as 
in  the  first  design  and  were  finally  taken  out  and  aban- 
doned. 

These  boilers  were  among  one  engineer's  first  expe- 
rience, and  it  was  here  he  got  an  insight  into  cooling  off 
boilers  for  cleaning.  He  was  assistant  here  and  worked 
under  orders. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  door  at  each  end  of 
the  boiler.  Saturday  nights  both  of  these  doors  were 
opened,  as  well  as  all  the  doors  on  the  furnace.  It  was 

27 


Leaky  Tubes  from  Over  Heating. 

his  duty  Sunday  forenoon  to  draw  the  water  out  of  the 
boilers  and  refill  them  with  fresh  water.  After  a  few 
months  the  tubes  on  the  end  of  the  boiler  towards  the  fire 
commenced  to  leak.  A  peck  of  horse  manure  was  put 
in  each  boiler  every  week,  which  for  a  time  kept  the  leak 
down,  but  finally  a  boilermaker  had  to  be  called,  wha 
reported  that  the  fire  ends  of  the  boilers  had  been  burned. 
As  the  boilers  had  had  the  best  of  care,  and  water  had 
never  been  low,  and  as  a  good  quality  of  water  had  been 
used  and  frequently  changed,  this  was  a  surprise  and 
could  hardly  be  believed.  The  fact  remained,  however,, 
that  that  end  of  the  boilers  had  been  overheated  suffi- 
ciently to  cause  the  tubes  to  leak. 

He  studied  over  the  problem,  and  to  his  mind  the 
cause  was  plain.  It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  two 
doors  shown  were  both  opened.  This,  in  effect,  was 
nearly  the  same  as  leaving  them  both  closed,  as  the  door 
at  base  of  chimney  was  as  large  as  the  area  of  chimney, 
and  would  supply  all  the  air  the  chimney  could  take,  so 
that  none  entered  the  other  door,  and  the  result  was  hot 
brickwork  and  a  hot  boiler  when  the  water  was  changed. 
He  remembered  this,  and  in  his  practice  when  he  was  in 
charge  of  boilers,  always  left  ash  and  firedoors  opened, 
as  well  as  the  damper,  and  no  other  doors  that  could 
interfere  with  the  draft  through  the  boiler,  and  never 
had  a  leaky  tube  sheet  or  shell  from  any  strains  set  up  in 
changing  water.  The  boiler  was  always  cool  enough  so 
that  the  deposit  would  not  bake  on,  the  brickwork  was 
cool  so  that  the  boiler  was  not  overheated,  and  plenty  of 
water  could  be  used  for  washing  without  cooling  por- 
tions of  the  boiler  suddenly. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  oposite  policy  which  obtains 
in  many  places,  he  was  sent  to  a  place  to  attempt  to 

28 


Cooling  off  Boilers. 


reduce  their  coal  bills.  He  saw  that  the  fires  were 
banked  in  such  a  manner  that  steam  was  blowing  through 
the  safety  valves  continually  during  the  times  the  ^boilers 
were  idle,  with  the  result,  that  the  valves  were  leaking 
badly. 

He  recommended  new  safety  valves,  a  condenser 
and  two  or  three  other  minor  changes,  and  put  them  in. 
The  boilers  were  5x16  tubulars  in  a  small  electric  station. 

In  the  afternoon  he  told  the  regular  engineer  that  he 
wished  to  put  on  the  safety  valves  the  next  day,  and 
when  he  shut  down  at  midnight  to  have  his  fire  out  and 
leave  dampers  and  firedoors  opened,  so  that  steam  would 
be  down. 

In  the  morning  he  found  firedoors  and  dampers 
closed  and  front  flue  door  open,  and  steam  up  to  nearly 
running  pressure.  Opening  the  flue  door  had  stopped 
any  possible  entrance  of  air.  It  was  three  hours  before 
any  work  could  be  done,  and  as  some  of  the  pipings  had  to 
be  changed,  it  made  a  lively  day's  work. 

When  the  regular  engineer  came  around  after  dinner 
he  was  asked  why  he  had  not  carried  out  instructions 
about  having  the  boiler  cool.  He  replied  he  was  told  he 
must  not  allow  any  cold  air  to  strike  the  tubes  in  rear 
end  of  boiler,  as  it  would  surely  cause  them  to  leak ;  that 
the  inspector  had  instructed  him,  and  he  had  been  very 
careful  not  to  let  any  cold  air  under  the  boilers.  Being 
asked  for  his  procedure  when  changing  water;  he  left 
everything  closed,  pumped  in  cold  water  and  let  it  out 
until  he  got  it  cooled  down  so  the  steam  was  gone, 
then  let  out  the  water  and  pumped  the  boiler  up.  Asked 
if  he  realized  the  strains  set  up  when  letting  out  the 
water  from  the  boiler  surrounded  by  hot  brickwork  and 
filling  the  same,  his  reply  was  always  the  same — he  could 

29 


Leaks  in  a  Cool  Boiler. 

not  let  cold  air  under  the  boiler,  as  it  would  cause  the 
tubes  to  leak;  he  had  been  told  so  by  the  inspector,  and 
he  did  not  want  his  tubes  to  leak. 

By  this  time  the  boiler  was  cooled  down,  as  well 
as  the  brick.  A  cool  boiler  will  show  leaks  when  it  will 
not  when  heated,  and  the  seam  in  head  commenced  to 
leak  over  the  firedoor.  It  was  pointed  out  to  him  that 
the  leak  was  caused  by  the  boiler  being  enclosed  in  hot 
fire  brick  while  the  water  was  let  out ;  that  the  boiler  in 
contact  with  the  brick  got  excessively  hot,  and  that  the 
cold  water  put  in  had  strained  this  joint  so  that  it  leaked ; 
that  his  tubes  and  seams  in  the  shell  would  go  the  same 
way  in  a  short  time;  that  if  he  opened  his  doors  and 
damper  he  would  not  get  cold  air  on  his  tubes  for  a  long 
time,  as  the  air  passing  through  the  hot  furnace  would 
be  hot  when  it  got  to  the  rear  end,  and  that  everything 
had  to  cool  down  together.  Any  explanation  had  no 
effect.  When  the  engineer  got  everything  together  it 
was  Saturday  evening,  and  tl  it  evening  being  the  heaviest 
load,  he  started  up  with  one  boiler,  much  to  the  regular 
engineer's  concern,  as  it  had  been  hard  work  for  two 
boilers  to  carry  the  Saturday  evening  load.  The  one 
boiler  carried  the  load  easily. 

The  engineer  heard  no  more  from  this  job  for  two 
years,  when  he  was  again  sent  there  to  put  in  a  new 
boiler. 

The  regular  engineer's  care  to  allow  no  cold  air  to 
reach  the  rear  end  of  the  boiler  had  resulted  in  leaks  in  all 
the  seams,  patches  over  the  fire,  leaky  tubes  in  the  rear 
end,  which  had  been  rerolled  until  used  up  so  that  one 
boiler  had  to  be  taken  out  and  one  5^/2x16  put  in  its 
place.  The  engineer  learned  that  shortly  after  leaving 
the  first  time  the  two  boilers  were  deemed  necessary  and 

30 


Another  Waste  Gas  Boiler. 

.itriK 

finally  blowers  had  to  be  put  in.  On  account  of  the 
manner  of  cleaning,  here  were  two  boilers  less  than  four 
years  old  with  every  tube  and  seam  strained  -apart  and 
finally  condemned,  and  still  they  had  not  let  go  and  killed 
anyone.  He  has  found  a  number  of  instances  where  the 
practice  is  to  leave  furnace  doors  and  dampers  closed  and 
the  attempt  made  to  clean  boilers  in  that  condition,  and 
the  result  was  always  the  same,  although  the  complete 
destruction  is  sometimes  longer  delayed.  •  To  clean  a 
boiler  thoroughly  the  boiler  must  be  cool,  and  the  desposit 
must  be  soft.  To  prevent  strains  on  the  boilers  the 
change  of  temperature  must  be  gradual,  but  when  cold 
water  is  put  on  hot  plates,  or  tubes,  leaks  will  occur  soon. 

Incidents. 

Figure  8  is  a  type  of  boiler  that  was  put  in  a  flue 
taking  waste  gases  from  crucible  casting  furnaces. 
There  were  three  rows  of  bottle  shaped  projections,  6 
inches  in  diameter  and  2  feet  long.  The  necks  were 
3  inches  in  diameter  and  were  screwed  into  a  bottom 
shell.  There  were  partitions  through  the  center,  and 
one-half  of  the  neck  with  this  partition  extended  into 
the  boiler  about  3  inches  higher  than  the  other  half,  which 
was  level.  This  was  to  insure  circulation.  This  type 
worked  very  nicely  and  was  easily  cleaned. 

The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  7,  being  in  a  steel 
mill,  provision  against  frost  was  not  first  class.  There 
was  a  man  whose  duty  it  was  to  fire  up  the  furnaces  and 
get  them  hot  enough  Monday  mornings  to  commence 
work  on  time,  and  also  to  watch  the  boilers.  One  morn- 
ing he  made  haste  to  wake  the  engineer  up  about  4 
o'clock  with  the  cheerful  news  that  there  was  160  pounds 
of  steam  on  the  boiler  intended  to  carry  but  90,  and  that 


Imagination  and  Leaky  Joints. 

the  steam  was  coming  out  of  every  joint.  He  hurried 
to  the  scene  and  found  all  the  joints  all  right,  as  well  as 
the  safety  valves,  but  there  was  160  pounds  indicated  by 
the  gauge.  An  investigation  revealed  the  fact  that  the 
gauge  pipe  was  frozen,  and  the  expansion  had  extended  to 
the  spring.  Imagination  had  seen  all  the  joints  leaking. 
In  another  place  he  was  aroused  by  the  watchman 


Fig.    8.      A   Boiler  to  Use  Waste   Heat. 

with  a  request  to  come  right  down  to  the  boiler  room, 
as  one  of  the  boilers  showed  165  pounds.  He  explained 
to  the  excited  man  that  it  was  all  right,  that  the  boilers 
were  connected  and  the  gauge  showing  80  pounds  was 
correct,  while  that  showing  165  had  a  leak  in  the  spring, 
allowing  enough  steam  to  enter  to  expand  the  spring  by 
heat.  No  explanation  would  satisfy,  and  he  was  obliged 

32 


Points  About  Gage  Glasses. 

to  go  down  and  make  sure  that  it  was  all  right.  Gauges 
that  are  in  very  hot  or  very  cool  places  may  sometimes 
show  a  little  out  because  of  the  extreme  temperatures. 

Sometimes  a  gauge  under  high  pressure  will  vibrate 
excessively,  even  when  the  cock  is  closed  all  that  is  pos- 
sibly, and  still  have  the  gauge  indicate.  In  such  cases  put 
a  quarter-inch  globe  valve  about  four  feet  from  the  gauge, 
and  that  and  the  cock  will  check  the  vibrations,  as  so 
much  will  be  taken  up  by  the  enclosed  water  between  the 
two  that  energy  on  the  gauge  is  gone.  To  keep  glass 
gauges,  gauge  cocks  and  all  places  where  there  are  slight 
leaks,  and  where  salts  from  the  water  leave  a  deposit, 
put  on  ordinary  machine  oil,  or  wipe  them  over  occa- 
sionally with  a  greasy  waste. 

At  one  place  the  engineer  was  awakened  by  his  fire- 
man and  told  that  something  was  the  matter  with  one 
of  the  boilers.  This  was  one  of  the  early  types  of  water- 
tube  boilers,  the  end  of  every  tube  and  header  being  a 
ground  ball  joint,  with  the  idea  that  expansion  could  take 
place  without  strains  and  without  leaks.  There  were 
two  or  three  leaky  joints,  but  looking  into  the  furnace 
revealed  the  fact  that  all  of  the  tubes  that  could  be  seen 
were  at  a  bright  red  heat. 

The  fireman  had  changed  the  water  Sunday  and  left 
the  water  at  a  proper  level.  The  blow-off  valve  was  a 
2-inch  globe.  A  piece  of  clinker  had  in  some  way  got 
into  the  hollow  on  the  bottom,  and  the  guide  stem  had 
reached  it,  so  that  the  valve  had  leaked  sufficiently  to 
let  nearly  all  the  water  out.  The  fireman,  knowing  he 
had  left  the  water  all  right,  had  not  examined  it  in  the 
morning  before  firing  up. 

Sometimes  a  man  will  try  his  gauges  and  take  it  for 
grantejd  that  the  small  amount  of  water  issuing  there- 

33 


Taking  Water  From  Stream. 

from  comes  from  the  boiler  instead  of  lying  in  the  gage- 
In  one  case  a  fireman  reported  to  his  engineer  that  a 
boiler  being  heated  by  waste  heat  was  not  taking  any 
water.  This  boiler,  which  was  an  upright  water  tubular, 
had  a  pipe  extending  from  top  to  bottom,  in  which  was 
the  gauge  column  with  a  valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  pipe. 
This  boiler  was  in  a  secluded  place,  where  workmen  used 
to  get  to  do  their  heavy  loafing,  and  some  of  them  had 
closed  the  valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  column  and  the 
gauges  showed  water  all  right.  The  boiler  was  burned 
up. 

The  boiler,  with  the  clinker  in  the  blow-off,  had  the 
leaky  joints  reground  and  was  in  use  for  some  time  after- 
wards. It  was  arranged  with  tile  placed  in  the  tubes  so 
that  the  gases  passed  to  rear  end,  then  along  a  portion 
of  the  tubes  to  the  front  end  and  under  the  drums  to  the 
chimney. 

It  was  finally  abandoned,  because  "it  could  not  be 
cleaned."  It  was  impossible  to  get  the  ashes  out  of  the 
tubes  on  top  of  the  tile  partition,  and  when  it  was  finally 
taken,  thirty  cartloads  were  taken  from  those  places. 

Strainers. 

Wherever  water  is  taken  from  a  stream  for  use  for 
power  purposes,  such  as  pumps,  condensers,  etc.,  there 
should  be  a  good  system  of  strainers.  Where  possible 
or  practicable  to  use  them,  a  pair  of  strainers,  like  Fig. 
9,  is  easily  controlled.  The  frame  shoud  be  made  from 
3x1^  inch  finished  material,  and  brass  rods  put  through, 
as  shown.  These  help  to  stiffen  the  frame,  but  their 
principal  use  is  to  keep  the  screen  in  shape,  as  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  against  a  partially  clogged  strainer 

34 


Plan  of  Strainers. 

would   soon  ruin   it  were  it  not  supported, 
should  be  fastened  the  copper  wire  netting. 


Over  this 


9.      Strainer  Frame  and  Rack. 


A  cheaper  strainer  is  made  by  punching  a  sheet  of 
copper.     These  holes  may  be  punched  with  machinery. 

35 


Double  Strainers. 

The  strainer  should  extend  over  the  framework  1^-1^2 
inches,  and  be  securely  fastened.  Then  there  should  be 
a  cleat  put  over  that  and  the  nails  driven  through  the 
frame  and  clinched.  At  the  top  should  be  a  top  board 
with  a  hole  sufficiently  large  to  admit  getting  hold  of  it 
with  the  two  hands  for  drawing  it  out. 

There  should  be  two  of  these,  as  shown  by  the  section 
below.  Fig  9.  This  should  be  anchored  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  will  keep  its  shape  and  be  made  tight  at 
the  sides  and  bottom. 

The  strainers  should  be  used  one  at  a  time.  When 
the  strainer  in  use  becomes  foul  the  clean  one  should  be 
put  in  and  the  foul  one  taken  out  and  cleaned.  To  do 
this  easily  it  should  be  thoroughly  dried,  as  the  slime 
from  most  waters,  together  with  the  other  accumula- 
tions, makes  a  paste  that  is  difficult  to  remove  when  wet. 
To  do  good  work  there  should  be  at  least  ten  times  the 
area  through  the  holes  of  the  pipe  or  conduit  it  supplies. 
Small  strainers  stop  up  too  quickly. 

If  deemed  necessary,  a  solid  gate  can  be  made  of  the 
same  dimensions  as  the  frame  of  the  strainer  and  used 
as  a  gate  to  shut  off  the  water  when  occasion  requires. 

Where  water  is  to  be  taken  from  a  running  stream 
and  it  is  necessary  to  build  a  little  dam,  the  proper  method 
is  that  shown  in  cross-section  in  Fig.  10  and  plan  in 
Fig.  ii.  If  possible,  arrange  to  have  the  strainer  put  in 
in  the  bend  of  the  stream.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  build 
the  dam  the  highest  at  the  side  of  the  stream  opposite 
from  the  strainer,  so  as  to  throw  the  larger  part  of  the 
water  over  the  strainer.  Excavate  a  place  in  front  of  the 
dam  and  build  a  heavy  bottom  of  concrete,  the  top  of  it 
being  about  two  diameters  of  the  pipe  lower  than  the 
bed  of  the  stream  below  the  dam.  Concrete  the  side  of 

36 


Dam  and  Strainer. 


Fig.    10.      Dam  for  taking  Water  from  Running  Stream. 

the  stream  for  a  space  from  the  dam  to  20  feet  below 
the  strainer  to  prevent  washing  of  the  bank.  The 
strainer  should  be  put  across  the  flow  of  water,  as  shown. 
This  should  be  made  from  sheet  copper  with  punched 


Fig.   ii.      Plan  or  Top  View  of  Dam  and  Strainer. 
37 


Water  From  Dirty  Streams. 

holes.  The  water  flowing  over  the  dam  passes  the 
strainer  so  strongly  and  rapidly  that  it  washes  away  all 
debris  of  every  kind  and  the  strainer  is  always  clean. 

A  strainer  put  in  as  shown  above  has  been  in  use 
ten  years,  and  has  never  been  foul  nor  required  any 
attention. 

When  a  strainer  is  put  in  where  the  water  is  slug- 
gish, the  drain  through  the  strainer  will  attract  all  float- 
ing material,  and  when  drawn  to  the  strainer  there  is 
nothing  to  carry  it  away,  and  soon  there  is  trouble. 
When  a  strainer  is  put  into  an  eddy,  unless  the  move- 
ment of  the  water  is  very  rapid,  the  same  clogging 
process  goes  on. 

There  are  places  where  the  only  available  water 
supply  will  be  from  a  small  stream  carrying  a  large 
amount  of  debris  of  various  kinds  and  the  stream  will 
be  sluggish  and  the  only  way  will  be  to  excavate  a  place 
to  put  in  a  suction  pipe  and  strainer.  Here  everything 
will  move  towards  the  strainer  and  it  soon  becomes  foul 
and  requires  attention. 

If  it  is  impracticable  to  make  strainers  after  the  plan 
in  Fig.  9,  there  are  double  strainers  and  foot  valves 
made  to  meet  this  emergency.  This  arrangement  con- 
sists of  a  foot  valve  and  strainer.  Over  the  strainer  is 
put  a  sliding  strainer,  which  can  be  lifted  and  cleaned. 
When  it  slides  back  to  place  it  scrapes  off  such  material 
as  has  accumulated  on  the  inside  strainer. 

There  are  conditions  when  none  of  the  methods 
named  could  be  of  use,  such  as  taking  water  from  an  iron 
penstock,  or  through  a  pipe  from  a  canal  on  the  side 
used  for  the  tow-path.  In  such  cases  there  should  be 
used  two  boxes  with  a  strainer  in  each.  These  strainers 
are  put  in  the  pipe  line  at  some  convenient  place  of 


Material  for  Boilers. 

access.  It  is  necessary  to  place  a  valve  each  side  of  each 
strainer  box,  so  that  the  strainer  can  be  removed  and 
cleaned. 

Strength  of  Boilers. 

There  are  many  experiences  to  be  found  in  the 
boiler-room.  We  will  take  for  example  a  tubular  boiler, 
as  this  is  the  simplest  form,  and  many  points  about  a 
tubular  boiler  apply  to  all. 

The  first  thing  is  the  material  from  which  it  is  made. 
Of  late  years  steel  is  the  general  material.  Where  the 
plates  are  in  contact  with  the  fire,  firebox  steel  should  be 
used,  and  flange  steel  can  be  used  for  the  heads.  The 
firebox  steel  should  not  contain  enough  to  exceed  .04  of  I 
per  cent,  of  either  phosphorus  or  sulphur. 

Phosphorus  makes  the  steel  cold  short,  and  sulphur 
hot  short.  Carbon  adds  tensile  strength,  but  the  higher  the 
tensile  strength  the  lower  will  be  the  ductility.  In  some 
cases  it  has  been  the  practice  among  the  workmen,  when 
they  found  a  sheet  was  not  coming  up  to  the  tensile 
strength,  to  spray  water  over  it  when  hot.  This  will  be 
detected  in  the  ductility  later,  if  the  physical  test  is  made 
by  a  disinterested  party,  and  for  this  reason  it  sometimes 
pays  to  have  a  firm  that  makes  a  specialty  of  tests  make  an 
inspection  of  the  material,  both  physically  and  chemically. 

A  plate  having  a  tensile  strength  of  65,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  will  make  a  strong  shell,  and  is  not  suffi- 
ciently high  to  interfere  materially  with  its  ductility. 

It  is  not  possible,  however,  to  get  all  plates  just 
alike  in  tensile  strength,  so  that  plates  should  be  not  less 
than  58,000  nor  more  than  65,000  pounds  tensile  strength. 
They  should  stand  the  test  of  being  bent  cold  around  a 
rod  equalling  their  own  thickness,  without  cracking,  and 

39 


Rules  for  Strength  of  Boilers. 

should  stand  the  same  test  after  heating  and  plunging 
into  cold  water. 

After  this  test  there  should  be  no  laminations,  blisters 
nor  other  mechanical  defects.  Each  plate  should  be 
plainly  stamped  with  the  maker's  name,  and  with  its 
thickness,  quality  and  tensile  strength  in  a  place  that  can 
be  plainly  seen  after  the  boiler  is  erected. 

Boilers  should  have  the  longitudinal  seams  made 
with  butt  joints,  with  double  covering  strips  and  triple 
riveted.  After  steel  came  into  use  it  was  discovered  that 
the  lapped  double  riveted  joint  was  unsafe.  This  joint 
had  a  way  of  causing  the  plate  to  crack  just  under  the 
lap  on  the  inside  of  the  boiler,  where  it  was  impossible 
to  discover  it  before  it  showed  itself  by  leaking  or 
letting  go. 

A  well-designed  single-riveted  seam  has  54  per  cent, 
of  the  strength  of  the  solid  plate,  a  double-riveted  seam 
70  per  cent.,  and  a  butt  strap  87  per  cent.  Sometimes 
specifications  for  drums  in  a  water  tube  boiler  call  for 
the  roundabout  seams  to  be  double  riveted.  The  party 
sending  out  the  specifications  insisted  that,  for  the  pres- 
sure they  wanted  to  carry,  it  was  absolutely  necessary. 
The  drums  were  3  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  metal  9-16 
of  an  inch  thick. 

Take  the  well-known  rule  for  the  longitudinal 
strength  of  a  cylinder : 

Thickness  X  tensile  strength 


radius  in  inches. 

9 

we  have  —  X  60000 
16 

=  1875 

18 

40 


Boiler  Calculations. 

and  with  butt  strap  joint  of  87  per  cent.  1631  pounds 
bursting  pressure. 

We  now  take  the  roundabout  joint: 
tensile  strength  X  thickness  X  circumference 

area  of  head 

=  bursting  pressure 
or 

9 

—  X  60000  X  113 
16 

=  3746  Ibs. 

1018 

and  taking  54  per  cent,  for  a  single-riveted  seam,  we 
have  a  bursting  pressure  of  2,022  pounds,  or  400  pounds 
greater  capacity  than  the  longitudinal  seam.  If  we  take 
70  per  cent,  for  the  double-riveted  roundabout  seam,  we 
will  have  2,622  pounds  or  1,000  Ibs.  greater.  There  will 
never  be  a  longitudinal  joint  made  that  will  need  a  dou- 
ble-riveted roundabout  joint. 

Allowing  a  factor  of  safety  of  5  for  the  longitudinal 
joint,  we  have  a  safe  load  of  344  pounds,  and  allowing 
a  factor  of  safety  of  6  for  the  roundabout  seam  we  have 
347  pounds  as  the  safe  load. 

Tubular  boilers  require  stays  above  the  tubes.  First 
find  the  area  to  be  braced.  Two  inches  above  the  tubes 
and  3  inches  around  the  shell  need  not  be  taken  into 
account. 

The  distance  between  stays  should  be  square  root  of 
6,900 

working  pressure  X  diameter  of  bolts 
Instead  of  6,900  use  of  5,530  for  salt  water  and  5,000  for 
copper  bolts. 

Tubes  should    be    of    wrought    iron.     Steel    tubes 

41 


Too  Many  Tubes. 

require  annealing,  are  too  stiff,  and  will  leak  sooner  than 
iron.  Tubes  give  a  cheap  heating  surface,  and  in  order 
to  get  a  boiler  of  large  capacity  it  is  the  practice  of  some 
builders  to  put  in  all  the  tubes  possible,  so  as  to  make 
the  horse-power  large.  For  this  purpose  they  put  in 
tubes  away  above  the  center  of  the  boiler,  reducing  the 
area  of  the  surface  of  the  water  for  disengaging  the 
steam,  and  a  pulsating  boiler  is  the  result.  The  tubes  are 
simply  an  economizer  and  are  not  as  important  as  some 
other  things. 

When  the  temperature  in  the  furnace  is  2,200 
degrees  the  shell  will  absorb  the  heat,  so  that  when  it 
enters  the  flues  it  is  down  to  1,000  degrees,  and  not  over 
one-half  of  that  can  be  absorbed  by  the  tubes  with 
modern  high  pressure. 

Should  an  excessive  number  be  put  in,  the  hot  gases 
will  only  go  through  a  portion  of  them.  Tubes  which 
are  too  small  break  up  the  gases  so  much  that  the  draft 
is  restricted,  and  they  become  easily  choked  with  soot. 

Boiler  Settings  and  Fittings. 

Water  issuing  easily  from  the  open  end  of  a  vertical 
pipe  will  assume  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

When  entering  a  pipe,  water  or  gas  will  assume  the 
same  form,  shown  in  Fig.  13,  so  that  the  volume  would 
be  represented  by  the  small  cross-section,  rather  than  by 
the  area  of  the  tube. 

In  putting  in  large  pipes  in  water  powers  the  pipe 
can  be  enlarged  at  the  intake  for  what  is  termed  the 
"entry  head,"  and  the  pipe  filled.  This  cannot  be  done 
with  the  ends  of  tubes  in  boilers.  Could  it  be,  the  velocity 
through  the  tubes  would  be  greater  and  the  deposit  of 
soot  less. 

42 


Feed  Pipes  —  Circulation. 


Tubes  should  be  put  in  so  as  to  obstruct  the  circu- 
lation of  water  within  the  boiler  as  little  as  possible.  A 
free  and  full  circulation  of  water  counts  for  capacity  and 
economy  and  is  more  important  than  a  few  extra  tubes. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  'the  tubes  are  of  full  thick- 
ness of  metal,  also  that  the  material  for  the  shell  is  the 
specified  thickness  at  the  thinnest  part. 

The  feed  pipe  should  discharge  at  the  coolest  part 


Fig.     12. 


Fig.    13. 


Shapes  of  Water  or  Gas  Entering  or  Leaving  Tubes. 

of  the  boiler,  which  will  be  that  portion  the  farthest 
from  the  fire. 

One  reason  for  this  is  that  the  circulation  is  the 
least  disturbed.  The  boiler  will  deliver  up  the  most  heat 
from  the  fire  when  water  is  flowing  fast  over  it,  so  a 
rapid  circulation  means  more  rapid  taking  up  of  heat  and 
easier  steaming. 

Where  water  is  admitted  directly  over  the  fire  in  a 


Boiler  Settings. 

sheet  boiler,  it  means  leaks  at  the  joint  at  head  of  boiler 
and  at  the  first  joint  near  the  bridge  wall.  The  correct 
plan  is  to  put  the  feed  at  front  head,  top  of  tubes  and  to 
one  side  of  boiler.  Carry  it  to  the  rear  of  boiler,  then 
across  to  opposite  side  and  down  between  shell  and  tubes. 
The  blow-off  pipe  should  extend  down  to  the  floor 


Fig.    14.      Best  Location  of  Blow-off  pipe  and  valves. 

level,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  It  should  be  extra  heavy  iron 
pipe  and  a  casing  of  larger  pipe  put  around  it.  Should 
the  water  get  to  boiling,  it  can  circulate  in  this  vertical 
pipe,  which  it  would  not  do  with  the  horizontal  pipe 
shown  by  dotted  lines. 

The  blow-off  valve  for  high  pressures  has  given  a 

44 


About  Safety  Valves. 

great  deal  of  trouble.  Put  on  two  valves,  both  extra 
heavy  solid  disk  gate  valves  with  outside  screw. 

When  using,  the  valve  nearest  the  boiler  is  opened 
first  and  then  the  other.  When  closing,  the  outside  is 
closed  first.  This  brings  all  the  wear  on  the  outside 
valve,  as  the  inside  is  always  balanced  and  moves  freely. 
If  preferred,  an  asbestos  packed  cock  can  be  used  for  the 
outside  valve. 

Lever  safety  valves  have  about  gone  out  of  date. 
They  or  single-seat  spring  valves  should  never  be  used 
alone,  but  there  should  always  be  a  double  seat  or  "pop0 
safety  valve.  The  latter,  with  a  rise  in  pressure  of  3  or  4 
pounds,  will  open  wide,  and  no  further  rise  is  possible; 
while  with  the  two  first  the  pressure  may  rise  20  to  40 
pounds  before  the  valve  will  relieve  it.  For  years  to 
come,  in  some  cases,  lever  valves  will  be  used. 

"Pops"  are  set  before  leaving  the  factory.  They 
can  be  changed  by  tightening  or  loosening  the  spring, 
— one  side  of  the  hex  nut  for  five  pounds,  but  if  this  is 
changed  very  much  the  ring  at  the  bottom  of  the  valve 
wants  changing  to  preserve  the  sensitiveness  of  opening 
and  closing.  All  boilers  should  have  two  safety  valves. 

The  rules  for  area  of  safety  valves  are :  For  "pop" 
valve  allow  I  square  inch  area  of  valve  for  each  3  square 
feet  of  grate.  For  lever  valves  allow  I  square  inch  for 
each  2  square  feet  of  grate;  or,  multiply  the  weight  of 
water  evaporation  per  hour  by  .005 ;  the  result  is  area 
of  valve  disc  in  square  inches. 

The  water  gage  fittings  should  all  be  of  a  heavy 
pattern,  and  the  glass  gage  ^  incn-  The  water  glass 
gage  should  have  automatic  valves  in  the  event  of  the 
glass  breaking,  or  else  levers  on  the  valve  stems,  with 
chains  so  that  the  gage  can  be  shut  off.  In  case  the 

45 


Side  Walls. 

glass  breaks  and  none  of  these  are  at  hand,  always  shut 
off  the  water,  or  bottom,  valve  first.  By  doing  this  and 
using  care  one  need  not  get  burned.  If  steam  is  shut 
off  first,  look  out. 

When  building  a  bridge  wall,  put  the  fire-brick  face 
as  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

When  the  brick  on  the  face  are  laid  up  square,  the 
tools  used  in  cleaning  the  fire  will  gradually  knock  off  the 


Fig.    15.      How  Side  Walls  Should  Be  Built. 


top  course,  and  after  a  time  the  whole  bridge  wall  disinte- 
grates. Putting  in  bricks  as  shown  locks  the  top  brick 
effectually  and  makes  a  durable  wall. 

When  building  the  side  walls  the  same' course  should 
be  taken  in  putting  in  the  fire-brick  at  the  furnace  as 
shown  at  the  bottom  of 'the  bridge  wall.  This  makes 

46 


Fire  Brick  Arch. 

repairs  quickly  and  cheaply  done.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  14.  These  are  headers  above  the  clinker  line,  then 
a  stretcher  for  binding,  then  all  headers,  but  the  top  bricks 
are  wedged  so  as  to  have  the  top  ones  embedded. 

This  form  of  construction  accomplishes  two  things: 
The  bricks  at  the  bottom  burn  out,  and  they  can  be  taken 
out  up  to  the  stretcher,  which  will  fall  out,  leaving  the 
remainder  of  the  wall  intact.  The  bottom  brick  and 
stretcher  can  be  replaced  without  the  necessity  of  taking 
down  the  whole  face. 

Where  air  space  is  left,  it  should  be  3  or  4  inches 
next  to  the  outer  course  of  brick. 


Fig.    1 6.      Making  a  Fire  Brick  Arch. 


The  walls  should  be  sloped  away  from  the  boiler  as 
shown,  leaving  a  space  not  less  than  3  inches  from  the 
shell  until  the  wall  closes  in  to  the  boiler. 

Fig.  1 6  is  a  design  for  making  an  arch  with  fire  brick. 

It  consists  of  an  iron  form,  as  shown  by  the  heavy 
line  which  can  be  either  of  wrought  iron  bent  into  proper 
shape  for  any  length  or  radius  of  arch  desired,  or  it  may 
be  of  cast  iron. 

The  brick  are  built  into  it  tight  and  the  structure  is 
set  into  place. 

It  can  be  used  over  doors  or  at  rear  of  boilers. 

As  the  metal  is  protected  by  the  brick,  the  arch  will 
last  until  the  brick  are  burned  out,  if  no  mortar  is  put 
between  them ;  that  is,  if  the  brick  are  laid  solid. 

47 


Furnace  Plates. 

For  a  plate  over  the  furnace  the  style  shown  in  Fig. 
17  is  the  best,  if  cast  iron  is  used.  This  was  designed  by 
the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection  &  Insurance  Com- 
pany. 

With  this  form  the  iron  next  the  fire  can  expand 
until  the  spaces  are  entirely  closed,  and  the  plate  will  still 
keep  its  shape.  The  casting  can  be  made  in  the  form  of 
a  box,  so  as  to  take  in  the  sides  and  top  of  the  door ;  but 
it  should  all  be  serrated,  as  shown,  on  the  side  towards 
the  fire. 

Shell  boilers  are  usually  supported  by  two  lugs  on 
each  side.  The  rear  lug  should  rest  on  rollers.  It  would 


Fig.    17.      Best  Cast  Iron   Plate  for  Over  Furnace 

be  a  better  plan  to  put  up  columns  and  channel  bars  and 
hang  the  boilers  from  these,  after  the  manner  in  which 
tube  boilers  are  supported,  so  as  to  have  them  entirely  free 
from  the  brickwork.  This  would  make  the  boilers  more 
expensive,  and  as  one  reason  for  putting  in  this  type  of 
boiler  is  the  low  first  cost,  this  form  of  support  is  rarely 
attempted. 

Fig  14  shows  a  pipe  leading  from  the  safety  valve  for 
a  distance  and  then  turned  up.  This  is  unsafe  unless 
there  be  a  firm  support  under  the  ell.  Wherever  there  is 
an  open  end  just  beyond  an  ell,  the  ell  should  be  well  sup- 
ported. Pipes  like  this  will  break  open  the  valve  case 
when  blowing  off.  One  man  had  one  ear  partially  torn  off 

48 


Floor  Plates. 

at  one  time  with  a  ^4-inch  drain  pipe  put  up  in  a  similar 
manner. 

There  should  also  be  a  drain  at  the  ell.  The  better 
plan  is  not  to  put  any  pipe  from  the  safety  valve,  but  let  it 
blow  directly  into  the  boiler-room.  If  this  is  done,  one 
can  always  see  just  what  the  valve  is  doing. 

At  one  place  where  the  pipe  from  the  safety  valve 
led  out  of  doors  in  a  horizontal  direction,  the  valve  leaked, 


i 


L 


Fig.    1 8.      Floor  Plates. 

and  one  cold  Saturday  night  the  pipe  filled  with  ice.  The 
fires  were  banked,  but  during  Sunday  night  the  boiler 
got  to  making  steam,  and  while  the  safety  valve  did  its 
duty  the  steam  could  not  get  away,  and  an  explosion  was 
the  result. 

For  a  floor  for  boiler-house  put  in  Portland  cement 
concrete.  Where  no  teaming  is  to  be  done  on  it,  4  inches 
will  be  sufficiently  thick.  Where  teams  bring  in  the  coal 
it  should  be  6  inches.  There  should  be  a  drain  at  the 


49 


Draining  of  Floors. 

corner  of  each  boiler,  leading  down  into  an  underground 
drain. 

The  floor  should  slope  in  all  directions  to  this  drain. 
When  this  is  done  all  water  flows  away  quickly  and  the 
floor  can  be  washed  at  any  time.  There  should  be  a  i- 
inch  water  pipe  of  cold  water  brought  to  the  boiler-house, 
if  the  pumps  are  in  another  place,  and  plenty  of  34-inch 
hose  on  hand  for  wetting  ashes  and  washing  the  floor. 

In  front  of  the  boilers  the  floor  should  be  of  iron,  as 
this  will  not  wear  out  with  the  shovel  and  will  stand  hot 
ashes. 

Front  of  boiler  put  down  a  floor  of  iron  plates  like 
Fig.  1 8.  These  plates  are  1/4  inch  thick,  diamond  tread  on 
top  and  ribbed  on  the  bottom.  They  are  24x30  inches, 
and  can  be  laid  in  two  rows,  so  as  to  make  the  iron  floor 
4  or  5  feet  wide,  as  desired.  They  are  laid  in  soft  cement, 
and  should  be  hammered  down  to  place,  when  they  will 
stand  all  sorts  of  hard  usage. 


Boiler  Explosions, 


T    T    T 

Boilers  explode  in  all  cases  from  lack  of  strength 
to  sustain  the  pressure. 

In  some  cases  a  sound  boiler  explodes  from  mor 
pressure  than  it  was  designed  to  hold. 

Boilers  become  weakened  from  many  causes. 

Pitting  is  one  cause. 

In  some  cases  the  water  is  of  such  nature  that  scale 
is  formed,  and  underneath  the  scale  there  will  be  pitting 
that  can  be  discovered  only  by  the  removal  of  the  scale. 
It  may  be  caused  by  insufficient  circulation. 

In  a  tubular  boiler  the  circulation  rises  over  the 
fire,  passes  along  the  top  of  the  rear ;  then  descends  and 
flows  along  the  bottom,  when  the  boiler  is  properly  set 
and  worked. 

Should  such  a  boiler  be  run  for  any  considerable 
portion  of  the  time  at  one-quarter  its  duty,  the  circulation 
would  stop  before  it  reached  the  rear  and  descend,  leav- 
ing the  rear  of  the  boiler  without  circulation,  and  the 
stagnant  warm  water  at  the  rear  would  cause  pitting. 

Sometimes  acids  in  the  water  will  cause  it. 

One  of  the  worse  things  is  ammonia  from  sewage 
in  the  water. 

The  writer  had  a  case  of  this  kind,  and  succeeded 
in  stopping  the  pitting  until  a  better  water  supply  was 
secured,  by  painting  the  sheets  with  red  lead  and  boiled 
linseed  oil. 

External  corrosion  will  be  caused  by  water  or  damp- 
ness getting  on  the  outside  of  the  shell.  One  of  the 

51 


Destructive  Explosions. 

surest  things  to  cause  this  is  water  dropping  from  a 
leaky  valve  stem  or  flange  joint. 

Internal  grooving  occurs  along  the  inside  of  the 
joint  and  can  be  caused  by  the  bending  strain  set  up  by 
constantly  changing  temperatures,  caused  by  shutting 
off  and  turning  on  the  feed  frequently,  or  firing  unevenly, 
at  times  having  a  very  hot  fire,  then  leaving  it  to  burn  out 
until  it  is  full  of  holes. 

When  these  strains  are  set  up  and  resisted  by  the 
stiff  seam  it  opens  the  surface  of  the  metal  at  that  point 
and  makes  it  easy  for  impure  water  to  attack  that  point. 

Unequal  expansion  will  weaken  iron  so  that  it  will 
let  go  easily.  This  is  caused  by  sudden  changes  in 
temperature  by  incidents  named  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph, by  the  practice  of  many  in  cooling  off  a  hot 
boiler  by  filling  it  full  of  cold  water  several  times  while 
the  brickwork  is  hot ;  by  regulating  the  steam  pressure 
by  opening  and  closing  the  furnace  doors ;  by  feeding 
the  boiler  over  the  hottest  part,  thus  bringing  great 
strains  on  the  boiler  at  that  point  and  checking  the  cir- 
culation throughout  the  entire  boiler. 

Boiler  explosions  are  destructive,  because  of  the 
expansive  force  of  steam.  A  boiler  well  filled  with 
water  will  be  the  most  destructive,  because,  as  the  rup- 
ture occurs  and  the  steam  expands  and  the  pressure  is 
reduced,  the  heat  in  the  water  liberates  a  large  amount 
of  steam  instantly.  This  can  be  observed  when  blowing 
water  out  at  the  blow-off  or  at  the  water  gauge.  It  will 
be  noticed  how  largely  the  stream  of  water  expands 
and  that  a  large  portion  of  it  appears  to  be  steam. 

At  150  pounds  pressure  a  cubic  foot  of  steam  will 
weigh  .885  of  a  pound  and  the  temperature  will  be  366, 
the  heat  units  1224. 

52 


Facts  About  Steam. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  at  the  same  temperature  will 
weigh  55*4  pounds,  and  the  heat  units  contained  will  be 
366  X  SS1A  —  20220,  a  large  portion  of  whiclrus  ready 
to  become  steam  at  a  sudden  lowering  of  the  tempera- 
ture. 

Sensible  heat  is  that  portion  that  can  be  measured 
by  a  thermometer. 

From  32°  to  boiling  the  thermometer  will  register 
the  heat  added  to  water,  and  this  heat  is  termed  sensible. 

After  the  water  reaches  the  boiling  point  the  tem- 
perature is  not  raised,  but  the  heat  is  absorbed  in  evap- 
orating the  water.  This  cannot  be  measured  by  a  ther- 
mometer and  is  called  latent  heat,  or  the  heat  of  vapori- 
zation. The  amount  of  this  heat  is  determined  by  che 
heat  that  can  be  imparted  to  other  bodies  when  the 
steam  is  condensed  and  changed  to  water  at  212°. 

The  total  heat  is  the  sum  of  the  sensible  and  latent 
heat. 

The  temperature  of  the  steam  and  water  will  depend 
upon  the  pressure. 

At  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  the  sensible  heat 
will  be  212°,  the  latent  996°  and  total  1178°.  The 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  will  be  .038. 

At  100  pounds  pressure  the  sensible  heat  will  be 
338°,  the  latent  875  and  the  total  1223.  As  the  pressure 
rises,  the  total  rises  slowly,  the  sensible  rapidly,  while 
the  latent  decreases. 

The  properties  of  steam  are  its  sensible,  latent  and 
total  heat,  volume  and  pressure.  These  are  all  given 
in  steam  tables.  Most  steam  tables  are  given  from  32° 
and  15  pounds  pressure,  and  when  so  given  to  the  steam 
pressure  must  be  added  15  pounds,  or  rather  at  50 
pounds,  look  forward  to  65  pounds,  and  also  add  32° 

53 


Too  Light  Pipe. 

to  the  total  heat.  Thus,  if  the  total  heat  in  steam  table 
is  given  as  1190,  by  adding  32°  to  it  gives  1222. 

Water  is  heaviest  at  39.1°.  As  the  temperature  is 
raised  above  this,  the  water  expands  and  grows  lighter. 

Because  of  this  property,  when  it  becomes  steam  its 
expansion  is  so  great  it  moves  the  manufacture  and 
commerce  of  the  world. 

All  matter  other  than  water  continues  to  contract 
as  it  grows  colder.  Unlike  everything  else,  water  con- 
tracts and  grows  dense  as  the  temperature  decreases 
until  it  gets  to  39.1°,  when  it  begins  to  expand,  so  that 
when  it  gets  to  32°  and  ice  forms  the  ice  is  lighter  than 
the  warmer  water  and  floats  on  top.  Were  it  not  for 
this,  when  ice  formed  it  would  be  at  the  bottom,  turning 
the  streams  into  glaciers,  destroying  all  life  therein, 
shuting  off  all  water  supply  and  making  the  northern 
and  southern  portions  of  the  world  a  desert. 

Piping. 

In  the  matter  of  piping,  an  important  item  is  the  pipe 
itself.  It  should  be  of  iron,  as  steel  pipe  ruins  dies  and 
the  threads  are  inferior.  The  pipe  should  be  of  full  stand- 
ard thickness.  The  outside  must  be  of  standard  diameter 
to  insure  good  threads,  and  if  the  pipe  is  thin,  the  thread 
will  go  through  on  one  side.  If  the  outside  of  the  pipe 
is  not  full  size,  the  thread  will  not  be  full  and  a  tight  joint 
impossible. 

At  one  place  a  company  decided  that  it  was  large 
enough  to  have  a  purchasing  agent,  and  this  agent  bought 
some  pipe  at  a  greater  discount  than  the  company  had 
been  getting.  The  engineer  showed  the  pipe  to  the  sec- 
retary, pointing  out  to  him  that  it  was  deficient  both  in 
weight  and  thickness,  but  the  secretary,  after  a  talk  with 

54 


About  the  Weld. 

the  dealer,  decided  that  the  pipe  was  stamped  with  the 
name  of  a  maker  who  had  a  national  reputation  and 
that  it  was  all  right.  The  company  paid  for  it  in  repairs 
later. 

Soon  after  this  the  engineer  was  at  the  works  where 
the  pipe  was  made,  and  he  asked  them  how  they  came 
to  put  their  name  on  thin  pipe.  The  reply  was  that  very 
few  bought  full-weight  pipe  and  very  little  was  made; 
that  it  came  about  in  this  way :  A  contractor  would  bid 
low  on  a  job  and  would  buy  his  pipe  by  weight ;  a  dealer 
would  try  to  give  a  bigger  discount  than  another  dealer, 
and  he  would  order  his  pipe  by  weight ;  a  concern  would 
get  a  new  purchasing  agent,  who  would  try  to  make  a 
better  showing,  and  he  would  buy  of  the  dealer  giving  the 
best  discounts;  so  that  everything  was  working  together 
to  reduce  the  weight,  and  of  course  the  thickness,  of  pipe. 

Another  important  thing  is  the  weld.  Pipe  up  to  and 
including  I  ^4 -inch  is  butt  welded,  and  i^-inch  and  above 
is  lap  welded.  The  weld  should  be  such  that  it  will  not 
give  out  when  it  is  necessary  to  cut  long  threads,  neither 
should  it  crush  under  pipe  tongs.  There  are  brands  of 
pipe  that  will  stand  neither  of  these  tests. 

Another  important  thing  is  the  threading  of  pipe  and 
fittings.  When  threading  fittings,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, in  turning  out  good  work,  that  the  taps  be  standard 
thread  and  taper ;  that  there  be  a  stop,  so  that  the  tap  will 
go  a  certain  distance  and  no  farther,  so  that  all  shall  be 
tapped  to  a  uniform  depth.  When  the  pipe  is  threaded, 
equal  care  should  be  taken. 

Many  accidents  have  occurred  because  the  taper  was 
not  right,  or  the  thread  was  not  long  enough,  and  the  pipe 
has  pulled  out.  Cases  are  not  rare  where  a  4-inch  pipe 
has  been  put  in  with  less  than  five  threads.  In  some  cases 

'55 


Pipe  Threads. 

the  taper  is  too  great  or  the  die  has  been  run  over  it  two 
or  three  times,  reducing  the  end  of  the  thread.,  and  though 
the  pipe  may  be  screwed  in  the  full  length  of  thread,  it 
actually  holds  only  by  the  imperfect  threads  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  all  others  are  soon  corroded. 

The  short  and  imperfect  thread  on  pipes  is  usually 

Standard  Pipe  and  Pipe  Threads. 


STANDARD 

PIPE 

AND 

PIPE 

THREADS, 


A  =  outside  diameter  of  perfect  thread. 

B  =--  inside  diameter  of 'pipe. 

C  =  root  diameter  of  thread  at  end  of  pipe. 
D  =  outside  diameter  of  thread  at  end  of  pipe. 
E  =  length  of  perfect  thread. 

/"=  total  length  of  thread. 
G  =  length  of  perfect  thread  plus  two  threads. 

BRIGGS'  FORMULA. 

E  =-  perfect  thread  =  (4  8  -f  o.  8  A}  P. 

P  =  pitch  of  thread  =-  — . 
N 

N~=  number  of  threads. 
F  —  length  of  taper  at  top. 

Taper  ^"  to  one  foot.  x 

i 

Height  of  thread  =<  8  — . 
N 
<ji  •=  length  of  taper  at  bottom. 


Standard  Pipe  Tables. 

made  when  piping  is  cut  where  the  work  is  put  up  and 
the  men  have  hand  machines.  The  dies  are  usually  dull, 
and  the  men  stop  as  soon  as  they  have  a  thread  long 
enough  to  screw  up  and  make  a  tight  joint. 

The  thread  and  taper  for  pipes  that  have  been  gener- 
ally adopted  are  known  as  the  "Briggs  standard." 


Size. 

Thread. 

A 

I 

c 

D 

E 

F 

6 

i 

27 

.405 

.270 

.334 

.393 

,19 

.41 

,264 

i 

18 

.540 

.364 

.433 

.522 

.29 

.62 

.402 

i 

18 

.675 

.494 

.567 

.656 

.30 

.63 

.408 

i 

14 

,840 

.623 

.702 

.816 

.39 

.82 

.534 

i 

14 

1.050 

.824 

.911 

1.025 

.40 

.83 

.546 

i 

Hi 

1.315 

1.048 

1.144 

1.283 

.51 

1.03 

.683 

H 

in 

1.660 

1.380 

1,488 

1.627 

,54 

1.06 

.707 

u 

in 

1.900 

1.611 

1,727 

1.866 

.55 

.07 

.724 

2 

IN 

2.375 

2.067 

2,200 

2.339 

,58 

.10 

.757 

2i 

8 

2.875 

2.468 

2,618 

2.818 

,89 

.64 

.138 

3 

8 

3.500 

3.067 

3-243 

3.443 

.95 

.70 

.200 

u 

8 

4.000 

3.548 

3.738 

3.938 

.00 

.75 

.250 

4 

8 

4.500 

4.026 

4.233 

4.443 

.05 

.80 

.300 

41 

5.000 

4.508 

4.733 

4.933 

,10 

,85 

.350 

5 

5.663 

5.045 

5.289 

5.489 

.1G 

.91 

.406 

6 

6.625 

6.065 

6.347 

6.547 

.26 

2.01 

.513 

7 

7.625 

7.023 

7.340 

7.540 

.36 

2.11 

.612 

8 

8.625 

7.981 

8.332 

8.532 

.46 

2.21 

,712 

9 

9.625 

8.937 

9.324 

9.524 

.56 

2.31 

.812 

10 

10.750 

10.019 

10.445 

10.645 

.675 

2.425 

.925 

11 

12.000 

11.224 

11.694 

11.894 

.80 

2.55 

.050 

12 

13.000 

12.180 

12.685 

12.885 

.90 

2.65 

.150 

The  threads  have  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  but  are 
rounded  off  slightly  at  top  and  bottom,  so  that  the  depth 
of  the  thread  is  only  four-fifths  as  great  as  it  would  be 
if  the  threads  were  sharp.  The  outside  surface  of  the 
pipe  is  tapered  to  a  certain  distance  from  the  end,  the 
standard  taper  being  such  that  ,the  surface  inclines 
towards  the  axis  of  the  pipe  by  i  in  32.  This  makes  the 
total  taper,  as  measured  by  the  variations  in  outside  diam- 
eter, equal  to  i  in  1 6,  or  %.  inch  to  the  foot.  The  total 
length  of  the  tapered  part  is  given  in  the  table. 

57 


High  Pressure  Piping. 

For  some  reason  it  has  become  the  custom  to  list 
pipe  above  12  inches  inside  diameter  as  O.  D.,  or  out- 
side diameter.  At  the  present  writing  there  is  a  move- 
ment on  foot  to  list  10-inch  pipe  and  above  as  O.  D. 

Fig.  19  shows  a  section  of  5-inch  pipe  reproduced 
from  The  Locomotive.  The  taper  is  slightly  exaggerated 
for  greater  clearness.  Two  threads,  it  will  be  seen,  are 
perfect  at  the  bottom  but  flat  on  top,  and  four  are  imper- 
fect at  both  top  and  bottom. 

Standard  weight  pipe  will  withstand  any  steam 
pressure  that  will  ever  be  put  upon  it  if  the  weld  is  good 
and  the  threads  perfect. 

For  hydraulic  work  up  to  1,000  to  1,200  pounds 
pressure,  use  ordinary  pipe  and  fittings  up  to  fa  inch. 


1.16— 


Fig.    19.      Section  of  Threaded  Pipe. 

Above  that,  extra  heavy  is  safer.  For  those  high  press- 
ures, cast-iron  fittings  are  unsafe  and  brass  should  be 
used. 

For  high  pressures,  it  is  better  to  use  flanges  rather 
than  couplings,  or  sockets,  as  the  end  of  the  pipe  in  a 
flange  can  be  expanded  or  peened  in.  This  should  be 
the  case  in  all  work  5  inches  and  over.  The  standard 
flanges  for  heavy  work  are  safe  for  pressures  up  to  130 
pounds,  but  for  larger  work  the  flanges  should  be  steel 
castings,  or,  what  is  still  better,  drop-forged  steel.  Ordi- 
nary cast  iron  is  too  weak  and  even  iron  in  which  there  is 
sufficient  charcoal  iron  or  steel  to  bring  the  tensile 
strength  up  to  26,000  to  28,000  pounds  is  liable  to  crack. 

For  cold  water  at  high  pressures  the  tongue  and 

58 


Flanged  Joints. 

groove  joint,  where  the  tongue  fits  the  groove  accurate- 
ly, with  a  thin  rubber  gasket  at  the  bottom  makes  the  best 
joint.  If  the  tongue  does  not  fit  the  groove  this  joint  is 
but  little  better  than  an  ordinary  faced  joint. 

For  steam,  the  use  of  rubber  for  packing  is  inadmis- 
sible. For  large  work  and  high  pressures,  the  making  up 
of  large  pipe  mains  requires  close  and  accurate  mechan- 
ical work.  It  is  a  machinist's  job  throughout.  The 
flanges  require  to  be  fitted  as  closely  as  engine  work,  and 
after  the  pipe  is  put  in  the  flanges  and  expanded,  the  ends 


Fig.  20.      Rabetted  Joint. 


Fig.  21.      Peened  Joint. 


still  must  be  faced  off.  A  rabbetted  joint  is  shown  in  Fig. 
20,  in  which  a  corrugated  copper  gasket  painted  with  black 
lead  is  used.  This  copper  gasket  packs  the  flange  joint 
and  also  the  end  of  the  thread  on  the  pipe.  If  accurate- 
ly done,  this  makes  a  tight  and  durable  joint,  but  is  very 
expensive. 

Another  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  21,  but  this  joint  is  not 
trimmed  after  peening.  The  end  of  the  pipe  is  peened  in 
the  form  of  a  round  corner  down  on  to  the  thread.  Where 
a  pipe  does  not  pulsate  it  will  make  a  good  joint,  but 
should  there  be  pulsations  so  as  to  strain  the  thread  and 

59 


OF   TH£ 
UNIVPDQITV 


Joints  Without  Threads. 

get  it  loose,  it  will  eventually  leak,  and  it  is  a  bad  joint 
to  tighten  once  it  leaks  at  the  thread. 

Riveted  joints  on  piping  are  apt  to  leak.  Some  jobs 
of  this  kind  are  put  up  where  the  joints  are  all  tight,  so  it 
is  claimed.  The  engineer  never  saw  one  of  these  jobs. 


1 

rT 

" 

} 

-I 

1 

1 

Fig.   ^^. 
Van  Stone 
Pipe  Joint. 

1  — 

Fig.   23- 

Mitchell 

Pipe  Joint. 


All  that  he  had  seen,  that  had  ri vetted  joints,  leaked  more 
or  less.  Of  course  they  can  be  caulked,  but  his  observa- 
tios  led  him  to  think  that  caulking  a  leaky  joint  that  was 
pulsating  was  not  a  thing  to  look  forward  to  with 
pleasure. 

Fig.  22  is  the  Van  Stone  joint,  made  by  the  Wai  worth 

60 


Expansion  and  Leaks. 

Company.  This  has  no  thread  and  cannot  leak  between 
pipe  and  flange.  Fig.  5  is  a  joint  made  by  W.  K.  Mitchell 
&  Co.  This  cannot  leak  along  the  pipe.  Both  -of  these 
joints  need  to  be  faced,  and  the  flanges  can  be  turned  on 
the  pipe.  In  ordinary  flange  joints  the  gasket  should 
never  be  extended  outside  the  bolts. 

All  drillings  should  be  made  in  multiples  of  4,  and 
then  flanges  can  be  turned.  When  a  job  is  being  put  up, 
all  bolt  circles  and  all  drilling  should  be  alike  for  the  same 
size  of  pipe. 


Taking  Care  of  Expansion. 

I  find  a  paper  which  states  that  for  taking  care  of 
expansion  in  steam  pipes,  expansion  joints  and  corru- 
gated copper  have  gone  out  of  date  and  that  the  proper 
way  is  to  arrange  to  have  a  screwed  joint  acting  some- 
thing like  a  swivel  joint  in  a  gas  bracket ;  except  that  in 
this  case  the  pipe  swings  back  and  forth  where  the  pipe 
is  screwed  into  an  ell  or  the  flange  of  an  ell. 

All  engineers  know  the  result  when  a  fitting  is 
screwed  up  too  far  and  then  has  to  be  backed  off.  We 
give  the  fitting  another  turn  and  use  care  next  time  not 
to  go  too  far. 

Whenever  a  pipe  is  put  up  and  the  expansion  really 
works  the  thread  back  and  forth,  there  will  be  a  leak  in 
a  short  time.  The  reason  there  are  not  more  leaks  is 
because  there  is  spring  enough  in  the  pipes  so  that  there 
is  no  back  and  forth  movement  on  the  thread. 

Expansion  joints  should  be  avoided  wherever  pos- 
sible, as  there  is  danger  of  their  being  misused  in  several 
ways.  They  may  be  packed  with  something  that  sticks 

61 


A  Big  Piping  Job. 

them;  the  gland  may  be  screwed  up  sideways  with  the 
same  effect;  they  may  not  be  set  up  in  line  with  proper 
guides,  and  they  may  not  be  properly  anchored. 

An  expansion  joint  has  the  pressure  on  the  area  of 
the  pipe  in  which  it  is  placed  as  well  as  the  thrust  on 
the  pipe  from  the  steam  turning  the  corner. 

There  can  be  no  shaking  of  pipes  with  expansion 
joints,  as,  from  necessity,  the  pipes  must  be  anchored 
solid. 

The  ideal  way  to  take  care  of  expansion  is  to  have 
the  branch  pipes  long  enough  to  have  sufficient  spring  and 
put  in  long  curves. 

A  job  of  piping  was  put  up  to  carry  160  pounds  of 
steam.  The  main  pipe  was  16  inches  internal  diameter, 
and  to  supply  steam  to  the  engines  there  were  two  12- 
inch  pipes  taken  off  at  right  angles  to  the  i6-inch  pipe, 
in  which  was  an  expansion  joint. 

Before  the  pipe  was  put  up  the  engineer  designing 
the  work  was  replaced  by  others  who  simply  bent  a  piece 
of  flat  iron  at  right  angles,  put  a  strut  across  and  bolted 
it  to  a  rough  stone  wall  with  %-inch  bolts  to  take  the 
thrust  of  the  end  of  the  pipe. 

One  thing  was  inevitable ;  the  pipe  let  go. 

Then  came  along  a  pipe  man  who  suggested  putting 
in  the  thread  twisting  scheme  shown  in  the  cut  of  the 
expansion  piece.  Fig.  23a,  page  66. 

His  idea  was  that  the  pipe  would  twist  on  the  threads 
at  each  of  the  joints.  From  sheer  good  luck  the  pipe  did 
not  twist  on  the  threads  and  set  them  to  leaking,  but 
twisted  on  the  flanges. 

Of  course,  a  thing  like  this  cannot  be  anchored  until 
you  get  to  the  point  A,  and  the  shaking  of  the  pipe  togeth- 
er with  the  expansion  soon  had  the  packing  worn  out  in 

62 


Don't  Use  Copper  Ells. 

-~— - 

the  joint  that  worked  the  easiest.  There  was  a  big  leak 
requiring  a  shutdown  to  put  in  a  new  gasket. 

In  a  short  time  a  flange  on  this  joint  cracked  and 
had  to  be  bound.  This  joint  was  finally  made  sufficiently 
tight  so  that  the  movement  was  transferred  to  another 
one,  which  was  soon  in  the  same  condition. 

This  arrangement  was  leaking  so  often  and  caused 
so  many  shutdowns  that  it  was  finally  taken  out,  the 
expansion  joint  put  back  in  the  main  pipe,  and  the  end 
of  the  pipe  securely  anchored. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  among  the  fittings  in  this  hitch 
up  there  are  nine  companion  flanges. 

It  was  in  use  about  a  year  and  a  half  and  when 
taken  down  there  were  five  of  these  nine  companion 
flanges  broken. 

Copper  ells  for  expansion  have  a  way  of  bursting, 
and  copper  is  not  a  safe  metal  to  use  for  this  purpose. 

As  globe  valves  were  formerly  made,  it  was  a  nice 
job  to  regrind  them  when  leaks  occurred. 

After  a  time  very  ingenious  machines  were  made 
that  would  do  accurate  wo'rk.  Attempts  were  made  to 
get  valve  disks  that  had  a  medium  soft  composition,  from 
a  species  of  hard  rubber  to  babbit  metal.  These  are 
liable  to  give  out  under  high  pressure.  Valves  are  now 
made  with  brass  seats  and  disks,  and  both  removable,  so 
that  repairs  can  be  quickly  made.  These  should  not  be  put 
in  with  white  lead.  Some  makers  put  their  seats  and  bon- 
nets together  with  white  lead.  The  engineer  that  takes 
these  apart  will  find  a  nice  job  as  it  will  be  necessary  to 
get  a  torch  and  heat  the  outside  before  they  can  be  taken 
apart.  He  will  then  be  glad  to  put  them  together  with 
black  lead. 

63 


Valve  Openings. 

Globe  valves  should  always  be  used  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  open  and  close  quickly,  or  where  it  is  necessary  to 
regulate  nicely,  like  throttle  valves,  injection  valves  to 
condensers,  feed  valves  to  boilers,  etc.  There  is  not  so 
much  loss  in  pressure  through  a  globe  valve  as  is  gener- 
ally claimed,  especially  when  used  for  steam. 

The  difference  in  an  indicator  diagram  between  a 
globe  valve  opened  one  turn  and  full  open  is  hardly 
appreciable. 

A  globe  value  should  be  put  in  so  that  the  pressure 
should  come  on  bottom  for  two  reasons :  First,  if  the 
pressure  were  on  top  the  current  of  steam  through  or 
past  the  valve  will  keep  it  vibrating  and  soon  pull  it  off 
the  stem.  Second,  the  valve  disk  when  pressure  is  on 
top  will  be  held  on  its  seat  until  all  lost  motion  is  taken 
up,  which  will  require  about  a  turn  of  the  wheel  before 
the  valve  moves,  thus  rendering  it  useless  for  close  regu- 
lation, and  it  will  be  no  better  in  this  respect  than  a  gate 
valve. 

The  throttle  valves  on  straight-line  engines  are  made 
with  one-half  of  the  valve  a  solid  disk  and  the  other  half, 
or  moving  part,  swings  around  on  to  it  when  the  valve 
is  open,  so  that  one-half  of  the  diameter  is  always  closed. 
With  this  valve  there  is  no  wire  drawing  across  the  seat. 

Professor  Sweet  told  the  writer  a  story  of  an  engi- 
neer who  wrote  him  that  he  had  found  the  trouble  with 
his  engine;  the  valve  was  never  half  open,  and  he  had 
taken  it  off  and  put  on  a  valve  that  could  be  opened  full. 
Professor  Sweet  wrote  him  that  if  he  would  take  a  dia- 
gram from  his  engine  with  the  new  valve,  then  replace 
the  valve  he  had  taken  off  and  take  another  diagram, 
should  there  be  any  appreciable  difference  between  the 
two,  he  (Professor  Sweet)  would  pay  for  the  new  valve. 

64 


Draining  of  Pipes. 

The  engineer  admitted  there  was  no  difference. 

For  exhaust  and  water,  gate  valves  should  be  used, 
except  as  noted  above,  as  these  are  not  as  lively  as  high- 
pressure  steam. 

The  first  gate  valves  that  came  out  had  disks  made 
in  two  parts  with  a  wedge  in  between.  These  wedges 
have  a  way  of  wearing  in  such  a  manner  that  they  stick 
in  closing.  When  this  occurs  with  boiler  blow-off  valves 
it  causes  cold  chills. 

The  introduction  of  the  solid  disk  saved  all  concern 
about  the  valve  closing  easily  and  these  have  had  the 
largest  sale.  With  the  low  pressure  carried  at  the  time 
of  their  introduction  it  was  customary  to  put  in  rings  of 
babbitt  but  it  was  soon  evident  that  this  metal  was  not 
durable  under  heat  due  to  100  pounds  of  steam.  Babbitt 
seats  have  disappeared  above  a  pressure  of  70  pounds. 

When  high  pressures  of  150  pounds  and  superheat 
began  to  be  used  it  was  learned  that  even  brass  seats  and 
disks  would  not  stand  the  temperature  and  the  valves  with 
seats  and  disks  are  all  made  of  iron. 

The  old  line  of  check  valves  with  spindle  or  wings 
for  guide  and  vertical  lift  that,  when  they  had  become 
somewhat  worn  would  stick  and  require  several  hard 
blows  with  a  club  before  they  would  seat,  have  largely 
gone  put  of  use  and  been  replaced  with  the  swinging 
check. 

Sometimes  a  man,  when  connecting  a  steam  pipe  to 
an  engine,  will  incline  the  pipe  towards  the  boilers  as  it 
seems  that  the  proper  place  for  the  water  is  in  the  boil- 
ers and  the  drain  from  the  pipe  should  go  there.  He  will 
learn  that  the  drain  will  not  flow  back  against  a  current 
of  steam.  He  will  also  learn  that  when  the  load  is  light 
and  the  current  of  steam  slow  and  apparently  largely 

65 


Fig.   2,4.      Action  in   Pipes  of  Syphon 
Condenser. 


Water  in  Steam  Pipes. 

along  the  top  of  the  pipe,  the  water  will  loaf  along 
the  pipe,  fill  up  all  pockets,  etc.,  and  when  a  heavy  pull 
comes  on  the  engine  it  will  all  come  over  in  body  and  that 
it  is  better  to  slope  towards  the  engine  so  as  to  drain  all 
the  time  and  avoid  any  accumulation. 

There  was  an  excellent  opportunity  to  observe  the 
action  of  water  in  pipes  by  the  use  of  a  syphon  con- 
denser set  up  as  shown  in  Fig.  24.^  The  engine  had  a 
28x6o-inch  cylinder  and  the  exhaust  was  8  iixhes.  The 
engine  was  doing  rolling-mill  work  and  at  times  was 
only  carrying  friction  load.  When  the  load  was  first 
thrown  off  the  vacuum  would  go  from  23  to  26  or  27 
inches.  The  vacuum  would  gradually  drop  back  during 
the  light  load  to  22  inches,  when,  if  there  was  no  increase 
in  the  load,  there  could  be  heard  a  rush  of  water  in  the 
pipe  and  the  vacuum  would  go  up  to  26  inches  again. 

The  case  was  diagnosed  in  this  way:  When  the 
load  was  thrown  off,  the  volume  of  steam  in  the  exhaust 
was  small  and  the  water  condensed  in  the  heater,  etc., 
having  such  a  long  distance  to  travel  would  collect  along 
the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  As  it  collected,  it  would  lessen 
the  area  of  the  pipe,  thus  partially  choking  the  steam  pas- 
sage, causing  a  drop  in  the  vacuum.  The  vacuum  in  the 
condenser  would  remain  the  same,  and  when  the  differ- 
ence in  pressure  in  the  condenser  and  that  on  top  of  the 
water  became  great  enough,  or  the  pipe  became  choked 
sufficiently  so  as  to  start  a  wave  motion,  the  water  would 
be  forced  out  of  the  horizontal  pipe,  up  the  vertical  and 
through  the  condenser  without  trouble.  During  a  case 
of  high  water  this  pipe  and  a  portion  of  the  heater  were 
under  water  and  ran  without  trouble. 

This  condenser  would  at  times  get  too  full  and  would 
run  water  over  into  the  exhaust  pipe,  but  if  it  was  only  a 

67 


AfBetter  Plan. 

small  amount  and  the  pump  was  stopped,  the 
water  would  go  out  all  right.  Twice  during  its 
use  the  pipe  was  flooded  when  no  one  was  near 
the  pump,  water  hammer  was  set  up  and  the 
horizontal  pipe  burst,  but  in  no  case  did  any 
water  get  back  through  the  vertical  part  of  the 
heater.  After  this  had  been  used  for  a  short 
time,  there  was  so  much  trouble  with  it  that 
it  seemed  the  better  plan  to  change  to  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  exhaust  here  entered 
at  the  top  of  the  heater  and  passed  out  at  the 
bottom  before  it  entered  the  vertical  pipe.  The 
passage  out  of  this  heater  to  vertical  pipe  was 
so  short  that  there  was  no  chance  for  an  ac- 
cumulation of  water  and  there  was  never  any 
trouble  of  loss  of  vacuum  from  this  cause.  One 
day,  when  the  engine  was  stopped  and  drip 
open,  the  engineer  noticed  a  stream  of  water 
running  from  the  drip,  and  investigation 
showed  that  a  hole  had  become  worn  in  the 
coil  and  water  was  going  from  heater  coil  into 
the  exhaust.  The  coil  was  taken  out  and  a 
double  coil  put  in,  consisting  of  a  2-inch  and 


Fig.  25.      A  Better  Plan. 


68 


Heaters  and  Condensing  Engines. 

I  y*  -inch  pipe.  These  pipes  were  screwed  into  headers 
and  one  day  both  pipes  pulled  out.  Feeding  these  pipes 
was  a  pump  with  a  lO-inch  water  cylinder  controlled  by  a 
pressure  regulator  that  would  keep  the  pressure  up  to  100 
pounds.  This  forced  water  enough  into  the  exhaust  to 
condense  all  the  steam  so  that  there  was  no  pressure  to 
carry  it  away,  and  some  got  into  the  steam  cylinder, 
though  not  enough  to  break  anything.  Since  that  time 


II  nfl  n  n 


nnn 


Fig.    26.      Pratt  and  Cady  Receiver. 


this  engineer  has  never  put  a  heater  in  the  exhaust  pipe  of 
a  condensing  engine.  The  difference  in  temperature  be- 
tween the  hot  well  and  the  vacuum,  or  the  temperature  in 
the  exhaust,  will  not  amount  to  a  saving  of  2  per  cent., 
which,  in  many  cases,  would  not  pay  for  the  investment, 
and  when  the  risk  is  taken  into  account,  he  has  thought 
best  not  to  assume  it. 

When  draining,  it  is  necessary  in  many  cases  to  have 

69 


Heating  Liquids. 

a  place  that  will  collect  the  water  in  such  a  manner  that 
steam  cannot  get  by  without  forcing  the  water  ahead  of 
it.  The  principle  on  which  this  is  accomplished  is  shown 
in  a  Pratt  &  Cady  receiver  for  their  old  style  return 
traps,  something  like  Fig.  26.  Into  this  receiver  the  water 
comes  through  the  various  drain  pipes.  On  these  pipes 
should  be  check  valves  to  prevent  any  interference  one 
with  another. 

From  this  receiver  the  water  passes  out  through  the 
central  pipe.  This  pipe  extends  nearly  to  the  bottom  of 
the  receiver,  and  it  is  evident  that  no  steam  can  get  out 
until  the  water  has  been  forced  out  below  the  end  of  this 
pipe.  With  such  a  system,  the  drip  can  be  forced  as  high 
as  the  pressure  will  raise  water. 

When  heating  liquids  in  vessels  where  steam  cannot 
come  in  contact  with  the  contents,  coils  are  used.  If  at 
the  end  of  the  coil  an  ell  looking  up  is  used,  it  will  not 
be  possible  to  get  the  condensed  water  out  of  the  pipes 
and  have  them  do  their  full  work,  without  forcing  a  suffi- 
cient current  through  to  drive  all  the  water  in  the  pipes 
ahead  of  it.  This  means  big  coal  bills.  Immersed  coils 
can  be  successfully  drained  by  putting  a  tee  at  the  end 
of  the  coil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27,  with  a  very  short  nipple 
and  cap  on  one  end,  a  bushing  and  smaller  sized  pipe  with 
long  thread  at  the  other  end.  The  small  pipe  reaching 
into  the  tee  should  go  below  the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  com- 
ing into  the  side  of  the  tee  so  as  to  drain  the  coil  clear 
to  the  bottom.  The  coil  should  be  put  in  the  vessel  so 
that  there  is  a  continual  incline  toward  this  tee.  It  will 
drain  thoroughly  and  a  trap  can  be  used. 

Another  form  made  with  ells  is  shown  in  Fig.  28. 
These  pockets,  to  be  effectual,  must  be  short. 

70 


Main  Steam  Pipes. 

One  method  of  putting  up  a  main  steam  pipe  is  shown 
in  Figs.  29  and  30.  This  is  a  good  system  where  there 
are  a  number  of  smaH  engines,  and  for  such  a  purpose 
it  really  requires  no  separator,  for  it  is  itself  one  form  of 
separator. 

Where  a  main  pipe  is  put  up  like  Fig.  31,  the  drain 
from  the  main  pipe  can  be  taken  direct  into  the  boiler  by 
the  i  y* -inch  pipe,  as  shown.  In  this  pipe  there  should 
be  a  stop  and  swinging  check  valve  and  the  pipe  should 


Fig.    27  and   28.      Methods  of  Piping. 


enter  the  boiler  below  the  water  line.  The  pipe  from  the 
boiler  to  the  main  pipe  should  never  enter  the  main  at 
the  bottom,  as  when  the  stop  valve  is  closed  it  makes  a 
pocket  for  water.  In  some  cases  an  extra  stop  valve  is 
put  next  to  the  boiler  as  an  extra  precaution.  When  this 
is  done  there  should  be  a  ^2 -inch  drip  valve  just  above 
this  valve  to  drain  any  water  that  may  collect  from  leak- 
age through  the  top  valve,  and  the  bottom  valve  should 
be  opened  first.  The  stop  valve  at  main  pipe  should  never 


Main  Steam  Pipes. 


Fig.  29-30.      Main  Steam   Piping. 


be  omitted.  Another  method  is  to  put  the  main  pipe  at 
the  proper  level  so  that  the  connecting  pipe  from  the 
boiler  may  lie  level.  This  has  to  be  done  where  there  is 
not  sufficient  height  for  the  other  plan.  Fig.  32  is  a  top 
view.  This  is  equally  as  good  a  plan,  but  the  main  pipe 
may  not  be  high  enough  to  drain  back  into  the  boiler. 
It  is  claimed  that  7  feet  elevation  above  the  water  is  neces- 
sary for  this,  although  good  work  has  been  done  with  an 
elevation  of  4  feet. 

In  large  electric  stations  it  is  good  practice  to  put  in 


Fig.    31.      Another  Way. 


Fig.    32.      Top  View. 


Main  Steam  Pipes. 


two  steam  pipes  and  two  water  pipes.  Where  this  is 
done  and  there  are  two  lines  of  boilers  it  is  usual  to  run 
the  main  lines  through  the  center  of  the  boiler-room. 
This  necessitates  the  crossing  of  one  of  the  main  lines 
with  a  pipe  from  each  boiler.  These  cross-over  pipes 
should  not  go  under  the  main  pipes,  as  this  forms  a 
pocket  on  top  of  the  stop  valve  when  closed.  The  cross- 
over pipe  should  go  over  the  main  pipe,  as  shown  in 
33- 


33.      Plan  for  Crossing  Pipes. 


Where  the  pipes  are  not  too  long,  the  expansion  can 
be  taken  care  of  with  generous  curves  in  the  pipe.  Pipes 
300  feet  long  or  more  require  very  circuitous  routes. 
When  curves  like  Fig.  34  are  put  in,  they  should  be  laid 
horizontally  to  prevent  the  trapping  of  water.  Curves 
of  this  kind  should  never  be  put  in  with  fittings  or 
flanges,  as  they  would  be  leaking  in  a  short  time. 

73 


Curved  Pipes  and  Slip  Joints. 


Fig.    34.      Curve  that  might  Trap  Water. 
I 


Wrought  iron  expands 


of  an  inch  for  each 


150,000 

degree  change  in  temperature.     To  determine  the  expan- 
degrees  change  X  length  in  inches 

sion  of  a  pipe : = 

150,000 

expansion.    A  pipe  300  feet  long  or  3,600  inches  under  a 
steam  pressure  of   150  pounds  becomes,  if  we  take  70 
degrees  as  the  temperature  of  the  pipe  before  steam  is 
3,600  X  293 

admitted,  -    — =  7  inches  expansion. 

150,000 


BRASS    SLEEVE 


Fig.   35.     A  Slip  Joint. 
74 


Water   Hammer. 

Slip  joints  are  made  like  Fig.  35.  They  should  be 
accurately  guided,  as  the  sleeve  should  work  as  true  as  a 
piston  rod,  and  unless  guided  properly  the  gland  can 
clamp  the  sleeve  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent  it  sliding. 

The  pipe  should  be  rigidly  secured  at  each  end,  in 
the  first  place,  to  hold  the  pipe  from  pulling  apart  from 
pressure,  and  also  to  slide  the  joint  in  when  the  pipe 
expands,  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  prevent  vibration 
and  to  pull  the  joint  out  when  contracting. 

Large  pipes  should  never  be  anchored  to  buildings, 
as  the  vibrations  will  loosen  the  brickwork  in  time.  The 
pressure  against  the  end,  or  a  turn  in  the  pipe,  is  the  area 
of  the  pipe  multiplied  by  the  pressure  per  unit  of  area,, 
and  in  addition  is  the  momentum  of  the  moving  body  of 
steam. 

Water  hammer  in  a  pipe  can  occur  only  where  there 
is  a  dead  end  or  an  abrupt  change  in  direction.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  water  condensed  in  the  cold 
pipe  being  driven  ahead  by  the  steam,  then  a  vacuum 
being  formed  and  the  steam  and  water  rushing  together, 
only  to  have  the  water  driven  forward  again.  The  veloc- 
ity of  steam  rushing  into  a  vacuum  and  there  meeting  a 
body  of  water  gives  the  water  a  heavy  impetus,  and  should 
the  water  meet  an  obstruction,  it  receives  a  blow  that  will 
shatter  anything  of  ordinary  strength. 

Should  water  hammer  occur  when  steam  is  turned 
into  a  cold  pipe,  and  should  there  be  a  valve  of  ample  size 
that  can  be  opened  instantly,  the  pipe  can  be  saved ;  if  not, 
there  can  nothing  be  done  if  the  steam  has  traveled  any 
distance  so  that  there  is  a  large  volume.  Shutting  off 
steam  from  its  source  still  leaves  steam  in  the  pipe,  and 
until  the  steam  is  all  condensed,  the  hammer  will  be  main- 
tained until  something  gives  way. 

75 


About  Traps. 

An  important  item  about  a  piping  plant  is  a  trap. 
A  trap  is  a  trap,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  get  along  without  them. 

For  large  systems,  and  where  live  steam  is  used  for 
heating,  some  of  the  return  systems  are  on  the  side  of 
economy.  Where  heating  factories  of  more  than  one 
story  and  where  the  buildings  are  not  too  far  apart,  the 
engineer  was  successful  in  returning  the  water  from  the 
pipes  directly  by  gravity  without  any  trap. 

Where  the  work  is  not  very  important  and  the 
amount  of  condensation  is  not  large,  an  expansion  trap 
of  good  design  will  do  the  work  all  right. 

The  important  thing  about  traps  for  main  steam  pipes 
and  separators  in  the  same  is  that  the  trap  shall  be  quick 
and  sure  to  operate,  not  liable  to  derangement ;  that  it 
shall  have  a  large  opening  that  can  take  care  of  a  flood 
of  water  should  a  flood  come,  and  that  it  shall  not  close 
until  all  the  water  is  gotten  rid  of. 

A  trap  having  a  small  opening  is  liable  to  become 
plugged.  At  one  place  one  of  these  plugged-up  with  a 
small  piece  of  packing,  not  much  larger  than  the  lead  in 
a  lead  pencil,  and  a  smash-up  was  the  result. 

At  one  mill  a  bell  and  spigott  suction  pipe  was  put 
in,  and  the  pipe  being  lo-inch  diameter  and  200  feet  long. 
This  pipe  was  laid  by  skilled  men  and  extra  precautions 
were  taken  in  pouring  and  caulking  the  lead,  and  the 
gravel  was  thoroughly  tamped  under  it.  It  leaked  badly 
when  the  pumps  were  put  to  work.  It  takes  but  little 
expansion  to  draw  a  pipe  with  a  lead  joint  sufficient  to 
leak  enough  air  to  make  trouble  in  a  suction  line  or  in 
gas  mains.  For  water  pipes  under  pressure,  the  small 
leaks  are  readily  absorbed  by  the  ground.  Flange  pipe 
with  thin  rubber  gasket  inside  the  bolts  will  give  less 

76 


Suction  for  Pumps. 

trouble  and  can  be  made  absolutely  tight  with  care. 

When  connecting  a  number  of  pumps  to  one  suction 
pipe,  some  pumps  may  have  more  "pull"  than  others,  and 
the  latter  may  not  be  able  to  get  any  water.  The  safer 
plan  is  to  put  in  check  valves  in  all  the  branch  pipes,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  36.  Should  there  be  a  small  pump  in  con- 
nection with  large  ones,  put  the  connection  to  this  at  the 
bottom  of  main  pipe,  or  put  the  end  of  suction  through 
the  top  and  let  it  project  into  the  main  pipe  nearly  to  the 
bottom.  The  large  pumps  can  better  take  care  of  the 
small  accumulation  of  air  than  the  small  one. 


Fig.    36.      Check  Valves  in   Branch   Pipes. 


Drip  Pipes  for  Cylinders. 

Drips  were  laid  out  for  a  tandem  compound  engine 
having  piston  valves.  The  directions  were  to  lead  the 
drips  from  the  steam  pipe  and  the  drip  from  the  receiver 
in  separate  pipes  out  of  doors,  the  drip  from  the  receiver 
to  have  a  check  valve  and  trap.  The  drips  from  each 
cylinder  were  to  be  connected  with  check  valve  in  each 
end  and  carried  separately  to  the  condenser.  The 
engineer  did  not  see  them  put  up,  but  after  a  short  time 
he  heard  complaints  about  the  large  amount  of  water 
that  came  over  in  the  steam  pipe  and  that  it  took  an  hour 
to  get  the  engine  started,  the  trouble  being  with  water 

77 


Cylinder  Drip   Pipes. 


Fig.    37.      The  Wrong  Way  to  Pipe  Cylinder  Drips. 

in  the  low  pressure  cylinder.  This  seemed  strange  until 
an  investigation  showed  the  connections  made  (as  in  Fig. 
37)  with  all  the  drips  connected  together. 

The  way  they  worked  was  this :  The  pressure  in  the 
receiver  and  from  the  steam  pipe  was  greater  than  in  the 
low  pressure  cylinder ;  the  low  pressure  cylinder  having 
piston  valves  on  the  side,  there  was  no  chance  of  getting 
rid  of  the  water  except  through  the  drips;  the  pressure 
in  the  drip  pipes  from  steam  pipe  and  receiver  being 
greater  than  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder,  there  was  no 
possible  chance  for  the  water  to  escape.  The  drip  from 


Fig.    38.      Another  poor  way  to  do  it. 
78 


Steam   Heating. 

cylinder  and  receiver  were  taken  out  of  the  other  pipe 
and  were  carried  away  separately  and  there  was  an  end 
to  the  trouble. 

Drips  are  often  connected  as  in  Fig.  38,  the  drip 
from  steam  pipe  being  connected  to  the  cylinder  drips, 
and  when  starting  all  are  wide  open.  The  result  is  that 
the  pressure  from  the  steam  pipe  prevents  the  water  from 
escaping  from  the  cylinder  and  the  piston  slaps  in  the 
water  for  some  time.  The  drip  from  the  steam  pipe 
should  never  be  connected  with  the  cylinder  drains,  but 
when  so  connected  the  steam  pipe  drain  should  always 
be  closed  when  starting  the  engine.  In  one  case  where 
the  drip  from  steam  led  to  a  receiver  on  a  compound 
engine,  and  this  pipe  had  the  compound  gage  connected 
to  it,  it  was  found  that  by  giving  the  valve  one-half  turn 
the  pressure  on  the  gage  would  go  up  to  50  pounds  and 
yet  there  would  be  no  pressure  on  the  receiver,  the  pres- 
sure being  due  to  friction  in  the  pipe. 

Piping  for  Steam   Heat. 

When  heating  a  building  with  exhaust  steam  the  pipe 
should  go  to  the  top  of  the  building  first,  and,  leading 
downward,  branch  out  to  the  radiators.  Air  is  nearly 
double  the  weight  of  steam,  and  if  steam  is  taken  to  the 
radiators  on  the  rise,  the  air  will  flow  into  the  radiators 
instead  of  ascending.  When  taken  from  a  descending 
pipe,  a  large  portion  will  flow  right  through  to  the  bottom, 
and  there  will  be  much  less  trouble  with  air  in  the  radia- 
tors. Fig.  39  is  an  elevation  showing  the  arrangement  of 
piping  followed  in  a  large  hotel.  The  pressure  is  just 
below  that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  first  radiators  that 
were  put  in  had  I  square  foot  of  surface  to  75  cubic  feet  of 
space.  This  was  found  to  be  not  sufficient.  There  was 

79 


Fig.    39.      Plan  for  Piping  a  Hotel. 
80 


Piping  a  Receiver. 

then  put  in  I  to  50,  except  at  the  northwest  corners  of 
the  building,  where  it  was  made  I  to  35.  This  was  found 
more  than  actually  necessary,  but  was  a  better  fault  than 
to  have  the  heating  surface  small.  Steam  can  be  turned 
on  to  the  radiators  at  any  time,  and  there  is  no  cracking 
in  the  pipes. 

When  piping  up  the  receiver  for  a  compound  engine 
it  is  customary  to  do  it  something  on  the  plan  of  Fig.  40. 
In  work  of  this  kind  there  should  be  a  check  between  the 
receiver  and  the  trap  to  prevent  air  drawing  back,  should 
the  pressure  in  the  receiver  go  below  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Should  this  occur  and  there  be  water  present,  it 
would  surely  get  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 

Should  the  trap  not  open  properly  the  receiver  will 


Fig.   40.  ^ 

Piping  up  Receiver  of 
Compound. 

fill  with  water  and  a  large  body  of  water  go  over  into  the 
engine.  For  this  reason  some  engineers  have  advocated 
the  taking  of  steam  to  low-pressure  cylinder  directly  under 
the  receiver.  This  method  would  not  furnish  so  dry 
steam,  but  the  moisture  would  be  uniform,  and  not  in  a 
body  should  the  trap  fail  to  work. 

The  better  plan  is  to  leave  out  the  receiver.  One 
builder  has  tried  both  ways  and  can  find  no  difference  in 
economy  and  has  given  up  the  receiver. 

81 


Mason  Work. 

T    T    T 

The  best  way  to  learn  how  to  do  mason  work  is  to 
observe  that  which  is  being  demolished. 

A  man  was  employed  in  a  growing  establishment 
that  removed  a  great  many  buildings,  foundations,  etc., 
and  had  the  opportunity  to  study  the  result  of  different 
methods.  He  has  seen  brick  walls  pushed  over.  In 
some,  the  bricks  have  been  broken  and  when  these  were 
cleaned  it  required  a  large  amount  of  labor.  In  others, 
when  the  wall  fell  the  bricks  all  separated  readily  and 
were  cleaned  with  little  trouble. 

When  the  first  were  laid  the  bricks  were  wet,  or 
there  was  cement  in  the  mortar.  In  the  latter  case  the 
bricks  were  laid  dry  with  lime  mortar.  In  some  cases  the 
voids  between  the  bricks  were  only  partially  filled  and 
the  wall  came  to  pieces  easily  although  the  mortar  ad- 
hered to  the  bricks.  Observing  the  above,  engineers  have 
called  for  bricks  to  be  wet  except  during  freezing  weather, 
and  also  are  careful  that  plenty  of  mortar  shall  be  used 
and  that  cement  shall  be  added. 

Masons  generally,  if  left  to  themselves,  will  sling  a 
little  mortar  on  to  the  place  where  the  bricks  are  to  be 
laid,  especially  in  the  inside  courses,  lay  in  the  brick, 
spread  the  mortar  over  the  top  and  smooth  off  with  a 

82 


Laying  Bricks. 

trowel.  The  brick  are  held  by  the  small  amount  of  mor- 
tar top  and  bottom,  and  there  will  be  very  little  at  the 
sides  and  ends.  When  mortar  is  simply  slung  "over  the 
top,  or  "slushed,"  as  masons  call  it,  the  mortar  does  not 
penetrate  between  the  brick  more  than  from  1-16  to  1-4 
of  an  inch. 

When  laying  the  inside  courses  there  should  be  suffi- 
cient mortar  put  in,  so  that  when  the  brick  is  pushed  into 
it,  it  will  come  up  on  all  sides  clear  to  the  top  of  the  brick. 
It  should  not  be  smoothed  off  even  when  the  inside  course 
is  even  with  the  outside  except  on  the  last  level  at  night. 
A  wall  laid  in  this  manner  will  be  strong  and  more  nearly 
air  tight. 

Lime  mortar  should  be  made  by  slacking  lime  en- 
tirely covered  with  water  to  prevent  burning.  It  should 
be  mixed  some  days  before  using  and  should  consist  of 
about  one  part  lime  to  five  parts  sand.  When  cement  is 
to  be  used  with  it,  the  cement  should  be  mixed  thoroughly 
with  water  and  added  to  the  mortar  just  before  it  is  used. 

Pure  lime  will  not  "set."  It  is  only  when  mixed 
with  impurities  that  it  has  "setting"  qualities.  Should 
clay  be  burned  with  it,  it  becomes  cement,  and  the  more 
of  these  impurities  the  slower  it  will  slacken  and  the  less 
heat  will  be  given  off  during  the  slacking  process.  Cer- 
tain clays  are  made  up  of  silica,  alumina  and  iron  oxides. 
Some  lime  rocks  contain  these  impurities  and  are  val- 
uable for  making  cement. 

Lime  mortar  hardens  when  exposed  to  the  air  and 
will  harden  in  a  wall  only  as  fast  as  the  air  enters  and 
comes  in  contact  with  it.  No  matter  how  old  lime  mortar 
is,  if  taken  out  of  a  wall  and  immersed  in  water,  the  lime 
will  dissolve  and  leave  the  sand  free.  Quicklime  is  simply 
limestone  heated  or  burned  in  a  furnace. 

83        • 


Cements. 

Rosendale  cement  is  made  from  a  limestone  rock 
containing,  or  having  added  to  it  in  form  of  clay,  about 
30  per  cent,  of  silica,  8  per  cent,  of  alumina,  3  per  cent. 
of  iron  oxide,  33  to  35  per  cent,  of  lime,  and  the  balance 
made  up  of  magnesia.  It  is  burned  in  a  furnace  of  brick 
construction,  large  at  the  bottom  and  ending  at  the  top 
in  a  small  chimney.  A  layer  of  fuel  is  put  on  the  bottom, 
then  a  layer  of  the  stone  and  clay,  then  a  thin  layer  of 
buckwheat  coal,  and  the  furnace  is  rilled  up  in  this  man- 
ner with  stone  and  coal.  Some  kilns  are  made  to  dump 
the  whole  amount  in  the  kiln  every  night,  while  others 
are  arranged  to  run  continuously,  and  the  stone  is  taken 
out  as  burned.  All  stone,  properly  burned,  are  then 
ground  and  the  Rosendale  cement  is  ready  for  the  pack- 
ers. It  sets  slowly,  but  will  continue  to  grow  hard  for 
years.  It  is  not  suitable  for  work  that  needs  to  be  used 
at  once,  but  makes  good  construction  where  there  is  two 
to  four  months'  time  for  it  to  harden.  It  will  not  stand 
frost  for  a  few  days  after  it  is  laid.  It  is  claimed  by  some 
of  its  advocates  that  at  fifty  to  one  hundred  years  it  will 
be  stronger  than  the  quicker  setting  Portlands.  It  is  a 
long  time  to  wait.  It  has  the  merit  of  being  cheap. 

The  manufacture  of  Portland  is  a  much  slower  and 
more  expensive  process,  and  requires  several  times  the 
outlay  for  buildings  and  machinery. 

The  stone  is  first  quarried  and  run  through  a  crusher 
and  then  to  a  dryer,  where  it  is  thoroughly  dried.  From 
there  it  goes  to  the  ball  mill,  which  is  a  cylinder  about 
4  feet  in  diameter  and  5  to  6  feet  long.  These  mills 
are  lined  with  armor  plate  and  partially  filled  with  steel 
balls,  weighing  20  pounds  each.  Outside  of  the  lining 
are  screens,  so  arranged  that  the  stone  that  does  not  pass 
the  screens  is  thrown  back  into  the  mill.  The  stone  first 

84 


Making  Cements. 

goes  through  these  ball  mills  and  is  partially  ground  while 
the  mills  revolve.  From  the  ball  mills  it  goes  to  the  peb- 
ble mills,  which  usually  are  5  feet  in  diameter  by  20  feet 
long,  laid  horizontally  and  revolving  on  trunnions. 

These  mills  are  filled  half  full  of  imported  pebbles, 
from  il/2  to  2^/2  inches  in  diameter.  These  pebbles  are 
very  hard  and  their  work  severe.  When  the  stone  leaves 
the  pebble  mill  it  is  so  fine  that  95  per  cent,  of  it  will  pass 
through  a  sieve  having  10,000  meshes  per  square  inch. 

From  the  pebble  mill  it  goes  to  the  kilns.  The  kilns 
are  7^  feet  in  diameter  and  60  feet  long,  placed  on  an 
incline,  and  revolve  from  one  to  three  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  fire  is  at  the  lower  end,  and  is  coal,  pow- 
dered as  finely  as  the  stone  and  blown  in  with  air.  The 
stone  enters  at  the  upper  end,  and  finally  is  subjected  to 
a  temperature  of  3,200  degrees.  It  is  all  melted,  and 
emerges  from  the  kiln  in  the  form  of  clinker,  very  hard 
and  very  heavy.  In  some  mills  it  is  cooled  and  taken 
direct  to  the  grinding  machinery;  in  others  it  is  placed 
in  storage,  where  from  a  day's  to  a  week's  supply  is  kept. 
The  grinding  of  the  clinker  is  the  same  process  as  the 
grinding  of  the  stone.  After  the  grinding  it  is  taken 
to  the  stock  house. 

Its  chemical  composition  is  about  63  per  cent,  lime, 
20  per  cent,  silica  and  the  balance  alumina  and  iron. 
There  should  not  be  to  exceed  2  per  cent,  of  magnesia. 
The  rock  is  usually  carbonate  of  lime,  but  during  its 
passage  through  the  kiln  the  carbonic  acid  is  driven  off. 

The  utmost  care  must  be  exercised  all  the  way 
through.  The  chemist  must  examine  the  rock  before  it 
goes  to  the  crushers  and  see  that  the  right  proportions 
are  started,  and  must  follow  it  all  through  the  various 

85 


Properties  of  Cement. 

processes,  so  that  it  shall  be  correct  when  it  finally  reaches 
the  storehouse. 

After  the  cement  reaches  the  storehouse  its  physical 
properties  must  be  tested.  In  the  laboratory  the  cement 
is  kept  at  a  uniform  temperature,  so  that  all  comparisons 
shall  be  accurate. 

Briquets  are  made  having  a  cross-section  of  I  square 
inch  in  area.  The  amount  of  water  and  cement  are  both 
weighed  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  a  trowel.  This  mix- 
ing is  not  simply  turning  it  over,  but  all  the  pressure  pos- 
sible is  put  on  to  the  trowel  to  make  as  compact  a  mass 
as  possible.  Some  of  these  briquets  are  allowed  to  set  in 
air,  and  some  in  water.  At  one  day,  seven  days  and 
twenty-eight  days  they  are  tested  by  being  pulled  apart 
in  a  testing  machine,  and  a  record  kept.  One  set  is  kept 
in  boiling  water  twenty-four  hours,  and  must  not  crack 
nor  disintegrate,  and  must  also  undergo  the  tensile  test. 

A  cement  manufacturer  keeps  a  record  of  the  physi- 
cal and  chemical  properties  of  all  of  the  product  he  sells, 
and  if  it  is  condemned,  he  can  guess  pretty  nearly  the 
reason. 

It  is  important  that  a  'cement  should  not  set  too 
quickly,  as  it  could  not  be  handled  fast  enough  to  get  it 
into  its  place. 

To  determine  the  setting,  a  "pat"  is  made,  this  pat 
being  about  2  inches  square  and  J/£  inch  thick,  with  thin 
edges,  by  thoroughly  mixing  and  strong  compression 
with  a  trowel.  Note  the  time  when  the  pat  becomes  hard 
enough  to  sustain  a  wire  1-12  inch  in  diameter,  loaded 
with  l/4  pound.  When  the  wire  is  sustained,  the  initial 
set  has  commenced.  It  should  not  be  less  than  45  minutes. 

When  it  will  sustain  a  wire  1-24  inch  in  diameter 
loaded  with  I  pound,  the  set  is  complete. 

86 


Testing  Samples. 

It  should  not  be  less  than  two  hours,  nor  more  than 
six  hours.  The  water,  cement  and  room  should  be  about 
70  degrees  Fahr.  Much  warmer  than  this  the  set  will 
be  quicker,  and  colder  the  set  will  be  slower.  The  weight 
of  water  should  be  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the 
cement. 

Specifications  for  cement  in  many  instances  are 
peculiar.  Some  engineers  specify  that  the  cement  shall 
be  fresh  ground,  and  then  follow  that  up  with  the  re- 
quirement that  the  initial  set  shall  not  be  less  than  45 
minutes.  Fresh  ground  cement  will  hardly  stand  this 
latter  test.  Cement  is  improved  by  having  some  age,  and 
should  stay  in  the  storehouse  for  at  least  one  month. 

A  United  States  engineer  advertised  for  cement  and 
one  of  the  clauses  was :  "After  being  mixed  neat  and 
filled  into  a  glass  bottle,  or  similar  vessel,  and  struck 
level  at  the  top,  it  must  not  crack  the  vessel  in  setting, 
nor  rise  out  of  it,  nor  become  loose  in  it  by  shrinking." 
He  got  one  bid.  Cement  should  expand  about  one-thou- 
sandth of  its  volume  in  setting. 

It  is  surprising  what  different  results  will  be  obtained 
by  different  men  who  are  skilled  in  testing. 

A  sample  of  cement  was  taken  to  a  college  labora- 
tory, where  it  failed  to  fulfill  the  requirements.  The 
manufacturers  sent  their  representatives  and  he  showed 
15  per  cent,  less  than  the  icsult  of  the  first  test.  A  rep- 
resentative from  a  certain  testing  laboratory  made  a  test, 
with  the  result  that  he  showed  50  per  cent,  better  than  the 
first  test,  and  brought  the  cement  beyond  the  requirements 
of  the  specification.  All  these  tests  were  from  the  same 
sample  of  cement,  using  the  same  sand,  mixed  and  molded 
in  the  same  laboratory  and  broken  by  the  same  machine. 

Cement,  when  set,  should  be  uniform  in  color  and 

87 


Mixing  with  Sand. 

free  from  all  blotches  or  spots.    Unless  colored,  it  is  usu- 
ally light  in  color  when  hard. 

These  three  substances — lime,  Rosendale  and  Port- 
land cements — are  what  the  engineer  must  rely  upon 
for  holding  his  masonry  structure  together. 

The  next  important  thing  is  sand.  This  should  be 
clean  and  sharp  and  free  from  soil  or  dirt  of  any  kind. 
Any  loam  with  it  will  retard  its  setting  and  the  com- 
pleted work  will  be  inferior.  When  sand  is  fairly  dry, 
by  squeezing  a  handful  of  it,  it  should  leave  the  hand 
clean.  Putting  it  into  a  glass  of  water  the  water  would 
remain  clear. 

It  is  calculated  that  sand  has  voids  amounting  to  one- 
third  of  its  bulk,  so  that  if  one  part  of  cement  be  mixed 
with  three  parts  of  sand  the  voids  will  be  filled  and  there 
will  be  no  increase  of  volume  in  the  sand,  and  that  to  use 
less  cement  than  the  above  will  leave  voids  in  the  sand, 
depending  on  the  less  amount  used.  This  must  depend 
somewhat  on  the  size  of  sand  used.  In  an  engineer's 
experience  he  found  that  one  part  sand  and  one  part 
cement  made  a  quicker  setting  and  a  stronger  mixture 
than  one  to  three.  He  also  learned  that  there  was  a  vast 
difference  in  the  different  brands  of  cement.  A  specially 
good  brand  of  cement  will  carry  four  parts  of  sand  and 
make  as  strong  concrete  as  another  brand  will  when 
carrying  three  parts. 

When  using  Rosendale  cement,  it  would  be  well  not 
to  use  over  two,  or  at  most  two  and  a  half,  parts  of  sand. 
From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lower  priced  ce- 
ment is  not  always  the  cheapest. 

Lime,  and  Rosendale  cement  will  not  stand  frost. 
Portland  cement  of  good  quality  that  will  stand  the  boil- 

88 


Winter  Masonry. 

ing  test  will  withstand  frost  where  it  does  not  become 
frozen  before  the  final  set. 

Some  foundations  were  put  in  an  open  fieW  where 
the  temperature  remained  from  10  to  18  degrees  below 
zero  for  a  number  of  days,  and  the  concrete  was  first  class. 
This  concrete  was  protected  only  by  the  forms.  In  this 
case  boiling  water  was  used  on  the  sand  and  stone  so  as  to 
get  as  much  of  the  frost  as  possible  out  of  them. 

Brick  walls  have  been  laid  with  lime  mortar  very 
successfully  in  winter  by  the  use  of  hot  water  in  temper- 
ing the  mortar,  and  protecting  the  walls  at  night. 

When  mixing  concrete  in  the  proportions  of  one  of 
cement,  three  of  sand,  and  six  of  broken  stone,  it  will 
require  il/2  barrels  of  cement  and  l/2  yard  of  sand  for 
each  yard  of  concrete.  The  stone  should  be  broken  to 
pass  through  a  2-inch  ring. 

Cement  is  improved  by  working  and  driving  down 
solid,  and  for  this  reason  the  usual  manner  of  writing 
down  specifications  is  that  "only  sufficient  water  shall 
be  used  so  that  when  the  concrete  is  well  rammed  the 
water  will  just  show  on  the  surface."  To  do  this  and  make 
a  water-tight  iob  and  leave  a  smooth  outside  surface, 
needs  extra  care  in  mixing. 

As  mixed  in  orobably  75  per  cent,  of  cases  with  the 
above  amount  of  water,  there  will  be  considerable  stone 
in  places  with  very  little  of  the  paste  between  them,  and 
in  other  places  it  will  be  all  paste  and  but  little  stone. 

Because  of  this  sham  mixing,  it  is  sometimes  the 
practice  to  wet  the  mixture  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will 
be  "puddled,"  and  the  paste  will  mix  with  the  stone  suf- 
ficiently to  make  a  smooth  and  water-tight  job  with  but 
little  effort.  Such  a  mixture  cannot  be  rammed,  and  only 
a  thin  tool  is  used  to  work  it  down  well  next  the  forms 

89 


Concrete  Work. 

so  as  to  make  a  smooth  outside  job.  This  is  a  favorite 
plan  around  a  job  that  must  hold  water — as  dams,  head- 
gates  and  similar  places. 

For  jobs  of  any  size  a  good  concrete  mixer  should 
be  used,  and  care  should  then  be  used  that  the  mix  is  not 
allowed  to  heap  up  in  a  high  pile  and  the  stone  allowed  to 
separate,  roll  to  the  bottom  and  be  put  into  the  work 
separately. 

The  stone  used  in  concrete  work  should  be  crushed 
from  a  good  quality  of  either  granite,  a  strong  limestone 
or  trap  rock.  Stone  of  a  slaty  character  of  any  kind,  or 
limestones  similar  in  form  to  slate  rock,  do  not  make  a 
strong  concrete. 

Rubble  masonry  is  fast  going  out  of  date,  but  when 
laid  with  cement  the  work  should  be  watched  to  be  sure 
that  the  stones  are  bedded  in  cement,  rather  than  have 
the  stones  laid  and  cement  thrown  over  them,  which  is 
a  favorite  practice,  with  many  masons. 

One  way  is  to  have  rubble  work  "grouted."  This 
consists  in  laying  up  the  stone  dry.  The  outside  is  then 
pointed  up  with  Portland  cement,  which  soon  sets. 

A  box  is  provided  being  12  inches  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom, 30  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  5  to  6  feet  long.  In 
one  end  is  a  gate  about  6  inches  wide  and  8  inches  high 
to  let  out  the  mixture.  This  rests  on  top  of  the  stone 
work.  Should  there  be  any  leaks  either  in  the  pointing 
up  or  at  the  gate  in  the  box,  it  can  be  stopped  by  forcing 
into  them  paper  taken  from  the  cement  barrels. 

Rosendale  cement  is  used  for  this  work.  Water  is 
put  in  the  tub  or  box  and  the  cement  mixed.  Then  the 
sand  is  put  in,  one  of  cement  to  two  of  sand.  A  man 
stands  at  either  end  of  the  box  with  a  hoe  and  keeps  hoe- 
ing up  from  the  bottom  so  as  to  keep  the  sand  and  cement 

90 


Examining  Masonry. 

from  settling  and  to  mix  it  thoroughly.  Sufficient  water 
should  be  used  so  that  the  whole  will  run  freely. 

When  mixed,  the  gate  is  slowly  raised  and  the  mix- 
ture runs  into  the  stone  work,  and  if  properly  mixed  it 
will  fill  everything  full,  as  it  runs  as  freely  as  water,  and 
will  make  a  thoroughly  water-tight  job.  Such  a  job, 
after  it  is  a  year  or  two  old,  will  be  a  difficult  matter  to 
tear  down,  except  by  blasting. 

An  engineer  had  seen  so  much  of  this  work  done  and 
the  work  was  so  solid  that  he  attempted  to  use  it  in  his 
practice  at  different  places,  but  found  it  exceedingly  dif- 
ficult to  teach  men  to  do  this  very  simple  mixing.  They 
could  not  learn  to  keep  the  sand  in  suspension  and  the 
sand  would  run  over  the  top  of  the  work  and  stop  it  up. 
There  would  be  some  cement  at  the  bottom  of  the  founda- 
tion, a  lot  of  sand  on  top,  and  the  center  empty,  so  he 
had  to  give  it  up  and  use  concrete. 

He  found  a  knife  and  a  two-foot  rule  handy  tools  to 
examine  masonry.  When  brick  are  laid  close,  a  knife 
will  determine  whether  there  is  any  mortar  between  them. 
W'here  they  are  a  little  wider  apart,  the  end  of  a  rule  will 
soon  determine  whether  the  joint  is  full  or  whether  a 
little  mortar  has  been  thrown  over  the  top.  He  has  found 
many  masonry  walls  of  rubble  laid  in  cement  that  he 
could  push  a  two-foot  rule  through  in  places  after  the 
cement  was  set. 

When  commencing  a  foundation,  the  first  important 
thing  is  the  nature  of  the  ground.  If  the  foundation  is 
to  rest  on  stone,  the  surface  which  is  to  receive  the 
foundation  should  be  flat,  or,  if  the  stone  is  sloping,  it 
should  be  cut  into  steps,  otherwise  the  foundation  may 
slide. 

A  stone  base  will  transmit  vibrations,  and  sometimes 

91 


Foundations. 

sound,  so  that  is  not  desirable  for  the  base  of  founda- 
tions for  high-speed  machinery  where  vibrations  and 
noise  would  be  objectionable,  as  in  an  office  building. 

Damp  clay  is  slippery,  and  will  press  in  all  directions, 
going  down  at  the  bottom,  in  at  the  sides  and  bulging  up 
a  short  distance  away.  Dry  clay  has  a  tendency  to  draw 
moisture  from  the  air,  and  near  the  surface  will  expand 
and  contract,  depending  on  the  weather. 

In  many  sections  it  is  treacherous.  In  some  sections, 
where  the  land  is  well  drained  and  the  surface  water  runs 
away  quickly,  it  makes  a  good  base  for  a  foundation  when 
the  foundation  goes  4  to  5  feet  in  depth.  It  will  trans- 
mit vibrations. 

The  ideal  base  is  hard  pan.  This,  next  to  stone,  is 
the  nearest  to  being  non-compressible.  Next  to  hard  pan 
is  gravel  or  sand. 

If  possible,  this  should  be  compacted  with  large 
quantities  of  water.  Either  of  these  will  compress  some. 
The  thing  to  provide  for  is  that  the  foundation  shall  be 
put  down  in  such  a  manner  that  the  settlement  shall  be 
equal  in  all  directions. 

The  bottom  of  foundations  should  be  below  frost, 
otherwise  the  frost  may  distort  them. 

Good,  compact  sand  or  gravel  will  sustain  3  tons  per 
square  foot.  It  will  sustain  6  tons  if  a  few  inches  of  set- 
tlement in  a  few  years  are  not  objectionable. 

Clay,  when  not  subject  to  frequent  soakings,  may  be 
trusted  with  from  I  to  2  tons  per  square  toot. 

Quicksand,  if  it  is  held  on  all  sides  so  that  it  will  not 
be  forced  out  and  can  be  kept  dry,  makes  a  good  base. 
Should  water  get  in  it,  however,  it  will  take  but  a 
small  hole  to  let  it  out,  provided  it  has  a  place  to  flow. 

Where  soils  are  uneven  and  treacherous  and  can  be 
92 


Pile  Driving. 

kept  wet,  piles  should  be  resorted  to.  City  laws  allow 
from  25  to  30  tons  on  a  pile.  The  usual  specification  calls 
for  a  hammer  of  a  pile  driver  to  weigh  2,000  pounds,  drop 
12  feet,  and  the  last  blow  to  be  resisted  by  a  pile  sinking 
only  y^  inch.  The  question  has  been  asked,  "What  is  the 
weight  or  force  of  such  a  blow?" 

A  man,  having  a  large  number  of  piles  to  drive,  fell 
to  working  on  this  problem,  and  found  ignorance  on  all 
sides.  He  took  it  to  a  young  man  who  analyzed  it  as 
follows : 

2,000  pounds  weight  falling  12  feet  —  12,000  foot- 
pounds energy.  The  pile  sinking  I  inch  =1-12  foot  of 
space. 

Energy  =  force  X  space, 
energy 

Force  = 

space 

Energy       24.000       24,000  X  12 

—  =  288,000  Ibs. 
space  1-12  I 

as  the  force  of  the  blow,  or  the  resistance  of  the  pile,  the 
pile  sinking  I  inch  from  the  blow.  If  the  pile  sinks  only 
*4  inch,  there  is  no  doubt  about  its  being  able  to  sustain 
the  25-ton  load  imposed  upon  it. 

The  piles  should  be  sawed  off  not  higher  than  the 
line  of  permanent  moisture  and  a  concrete  base  built 
over  them.  They  are  driven  2^2  feet  center  to  center, 
and  the  concrete  commences  6  inches  below  the  top  of 
them,  and  should  be  2  feet  thick.  This  holds  the  top  of 
them  so  they  cannot  spread 

Where  piles  have  to  go  too  deep,  if  there  is  sufficient 
room,  a  base  of  concrete  can  be  made  broad  enough  so 
that  the  weight  will  not  be  more  than  I  ton  or  ^  ton 

93 


More  about  Foundations. 

per  square  fool,  remembering  always  that  the  base  should 
be  built  so  that  if  there  is  settling  it  should  settle  equally 
all  over.  To  accomplish  this,  a  sub-foundation  or  base 
should  be  put  in,  covering  the  entire  ground,  and  made 

2  to  5  feet  thick,  depending  upon  the  weights  that  are 
to  be  put  upon  it,  and  set  some  distance  apart. 

When  building  foundations  for  machinery,  there 
should  be  pockets  left  at  the  bottom,  or  a  short  distance 
from  the  bottom,  so  that  the  bottom  of  foundation  bolts 
can  be  reached  at  any  time.  It  is  rare  that  foundation 
bolts  break,  but  when  they  do,  to  have  a  chance  to  get 
at  the  bottom  nut  is  worth  a  great  deal.  It  is  also  handy 
to  be  able  to  let  a  bolt  down  out  of  the  way  during  the 
erection  or  subsequent  handling  of  the  engine.  The 
pockets  should  be  at  least  18  inches  square.  The  holes 
through  the  foundation  for  bolts  should  be  larger  than 
the  bolt,  so  that  the  bolt  can  be  swung  around  in  the  hole 
if  necessary. 

The  anchor  bolts  should  not  be  grouted  in,  as  there 
may  come  a  time  when  it  may  be  necessary  to  get  them 
out. 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  put  new  bolts  into  an  old 
foundation,  a  hole  can  be  drilled  somewhat  larger  than 
the  bolt,  a  split  with  wedge  put  in  the  bottom  and  clean 
Portland  cement,  without  sand,  out  in  the  hole  until  it  is 
half  full.  There  need  be  no  fear  of  pulling  the  bolt  out. 

The  general  practice  is  to  build  foundations  for  ma- 
chinery to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  level  of  the  base  of 
the  machinery  and  fill  this  space  with  grout.  This  may 
fill  the  space,  no  one  knows.  Air  pockets  may  get  in  and 
keep  out  the  grout  at  the  most  important  point. 

A  good  practice  is  to  leave  the  top  of  foundation  2  to 

3  inches   below   the  machinery   and   support   the   latter 

94 


_ 

_ 

SI 

SIDE  VIEW 


PLAN 


Fig.   41       Foundation  for  Cross-Compound  Engine. 


95 


Foundation  for  Compound. 

on  iron  wedges.  When  the  frame  of  the  engine  is  leveled 
and  put  into  line,  make  a  concrete  of  I  part  Portland,  2^2 
parts  sand  and  5  of  roofers'  gravel  or  of  small  crushed 
stone  of  the  same  size.  Put  just  sufficient  water  in  it  so 
that  when  it  is  squeezed*  in  the  hand-  it  would  retain  its 
shape.  This  is  pushed  under  the  machinery  with  a  stick 
and  rammed  solid  with  an  iron  rammer.  If  too  much 
water  is  put  in  it  will  not  stay  in  place,  but  will  fall  away, 
so  that  care  should  be  exercised  that  it  is  not  too  wet. 
This  method  takes  longer  than  grouting  and  is  harder 
work,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  fitsjsverv  place,  thatjt 
is  in  solid,  and  makes  a  filling  that  is  much  harder  and 
fits  better  than  grout. 

To  prevent  filling  the  holes  around  foundation  bolts, 
fill  the  top  of  these&oles- with  waste,  excelsior  or  some- 
thing similar. 

The  cut  shows  a  foundation  with  base  covering  the 
entire  ground  under  both  foundations  for  a  cross-com- 
pound engine.  This  is  a  good  idea  in  any  case,  and  es- 
pecially so  if  the  ground  is  not  of  good  gravel.  This 
plan  shows  pockets  for  getting  at  the  bottom  of  the  foun- 
dation bolts  so  arranged  that  access  can  be  had  from  the 
wheel-pit  side,  allowing  all  around  the  outside  to  be  filled 
if  desirable  and  a  cellar  not  wanted.  The  holes  for  bolts 
can  be  made  by  building  in  gas-pipe  or  boiler  tubing  or 
square  boxes  of  wood. 

Stakes  have  been  used  a  great  deal.  They  should  be 
tapered,  say  from  4  inches  at  top  to  2  inches  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  made  smooth.  They  should  be  soaked  in  water 
for  a  week  before  using,  so  that  they  will  not  swell  in  the 
masonry.  They  should  be  pulled  out  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  foundation  is  finished.  For  this  purpose,  they 
should  be  sufficiently  long  to  project  6  inches  above  the 

96 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Stone  and  Brick. 

top  of  the  foundation.  A  light  chain  should  be  put 
around  the  top  and  a  lever  of  4x4  timber,  12  feet  long, 
with  a  good  fulcrum,  will  usually  start  them.  __  If  not, 
have  two  or  three  men  put  a  strain  on  the  lever  and  hit 
the  stake  a  good,  square  blow  directly  on  top  with  a 
sledge  and  it  will  pop  right  out. 

Foundations  are  built  of  brick,  stone  and  concrete. 
An  engineer  was  building  some  foundations,  for  an  elec- 
tric station,  of  stone  according  to  the  terms  of  the  con- 
tract, when  the  civil  engineer  employed  by  the  owners 
objected  and  wanted  them  built  of  brick.  The  M.  E. 
asked  for  his  reasons,  and  he  stated  that  brick  made  a 
better  foundation  and  that  all  foundations  of  that  char- 
acter in  that  vicinity  were  built  of  brick.  The  M.  E. 
asked  him  what  an  engine  foundation  was  for,  and  he 
replied  that  it  was  to  hold  an  engine  up.  "No,"  said  the 
M.  E  ,  "it's  to  hold  an  engine  down  and  have  it  stay  quiet, 
and  to  do  this  requires  weight  and  stability,  and  stone  fills 
the  requirements  better  than  brick,  as  it  is  heavier  and 
stiffer." 

To  this  the  C.  E.  took  exceptions,  but  after  consult- 
ing his  books  admitted  that  stone  had  more  weight,  but 
would  not  agree  with  the  M.  E.  that  stone  was  stiffer  and 
that  brickwork  would  spring.  "Well,"  said  the  M.  E., 
"you  go  to  any  of  the  places  where  they  have  large  engines 
on  brick  piers,  and  if  you  can  find  a  single  one  where 
the  engine  is  well  loaded  that  it  does  not  spring,  I  will 
take  out  the  stone  foundations  and  put  in  brick."  The 
M.  E.  heard  no  more  about  foundations. 

Good  Portland  concrete  is  getting  to  be  universal 
for  engine  foundations,  and  is  rapidly  coming  into  use 
for  making  bridges,  dams,  and  buildings.  A  concrete 
house  costs  about  one-half  as  much  as  a  brick  one,  and 


Fig.  42.      Plan  of  Chimney. 


PLAN  OF  BASE. 


IS 


=r -----------    3  W.I. 


W.I.  Ring 


W.I.  Ring 


Brick  and  Steel  Chimneys. 

the  same  is  true  of  mills.  It  can  be  molded  in  any  form 
and  can  be  made  to  represent  any  kind  of  cut  stone  de- 
sired at  a  minimum  cost. 


Chimney. 

When  it  comes  to  deciding  on  draft,  and  first  cost  has 
to  be  kept  down,  a  steel  stack  is  usually  decided  upon. 

Carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide  gases  are  very  de- 
structive to  steel,  and  a  steel  stack  corrodes  very- quickly 
on  the  inside.  The  heavy,  self-supporting  stack  will  take 
longer  to  rust  out  than  the  thin,  guyed  ones,  but  they,  too, 
must  give  way. 

Fig.  42  is  a  brick  chimney  that  costs  no  more  than  a 
self-supporting  steel  stack.  It  is  very  stiff  and  stands  up 
against  wind  pressure  in  good  shape.  The  inside  shell 
is  12  inches  thick  at  the  bottom  and  8  inches  at  the  top. 
It  does  not  reach  quite  through  the  top.  The  outside  shell 
is  12  inches  thick  at  the  bottom  and  8  inches  during  the 
latter  part,  except  at  the  enlargement  at  the  top.  Com- 
mencing at  the  top,  there  are  18  inches  for  the  bevel. 
This  has  a  cast-iron  cap  with  rabbeted  joints,  so  that  no 
water  can  get  under  the  plate.  Copper  bolts,  %  inch  diam- 
eter, are  built  into  the  chimney  at  the  top,  and  when  the 
cap  is  in  place  these  are  riveted.  The  cap  reaches  down 
4  inches  inside  of  the  chimney  and  4  inches  over  the  base 
of  the  bevel.  The  square  part  is  12  inches  and  the  slope  is 
9  feet.  Below  this,  for  30  feet,  the  chimney  is  straight, 
and  from  that  point  to  the  bottom  the  batter  is  2-10  of  an 
inch  per  foot  on  each  side.  As  shown  on  the  plan  at  the 
base,  buttresses  are  built  into  the  outside  shell  and  ex- 
tend as  high  as  possible.  They  should  not  come  within  3 

99 


Reasons  for  Plain  Designs. 

inches  of  the  inner  shell  at  any  point.  Above  and  below 
the  opening  for  the  flue  and  at  the  top  of  the  chimney 
there  is  a  2^2 x*^ -inch  iron  band  built  in  next  to  the  outer 
course  of  brick,  and  every  10  feet  there  is  a  band,  1^2X^4 
inch,  built  in  in  the  same  way,  so  that  the  chimney  is  thor- 
oughly banded,  and  yet  they  do  not  show. 

The  mortar  should  be  made  of  one  part  lime  to  five 
parts  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  when  used  one  part  Portland 
cement  to  one  part  lime  should  be  added.  When  added 
the  cement  should  be  mixed  with  water  before  putting  it 
into  the  mortar,  otherwise  the  cement  will  be  mixed  in  dry 
lumps.  No  more  should  be  mixed  than  can  be  used  with- 
in three  hours  of  the  mixing. 

The  outer  course  should  be  laid  in  what  is  known  as 
"push  joints,"  viz.,  the  mortar  should  be  put  on  the  laid 
brick  sufficient  to  fill  the  joint  full,  the  brick  laid  in  it  and 
pushed  to  place.  This  fills  the  joint  completely  full.  Ma- 
sons object  to  this  because  it  makes  a  little  thicker  joint. 
They  like  to  stick  a  little  mortar  on  the  inside  corner  of 
the  brick  and  lay  it  down  as  in  an  ordinary  straight  wall. 
This  makes  a  very  thin  joint  at  the  outside,  with  often  no 
mortar  for  an  inch  or  two,  and  a  weak  construction.  All 
interstices  should  be  well  filled  with  mortar  for  strength 
and  for  tightness. 

It  will  be  noticed  there  are  no  rings  at  the  top  for 
looks  nor  any  projections.  All  projections  catch  snow, 
ice  and  rain,  and  as  water  is  a  universal  solvent,  where 
there  are  projections  there  will  be  disintegrations. 

There  should  be  a  ladder  built  on  the  outside  of  the 
chimney  of  %-inch  round  iron,  the  steps  being  14  inches 
apart,  14  inches  wide  and  projecting  9  inches,  so  that  a 
man  can  put  his  leg  through  to  rest.  A  chimney  built  as 
above,  6  feet  internal  diameter  and  125  feet  high,  cost 

100 


Size  of  Chimneys. 

above  the  foundation  $1,850.  One  8^2  feet  diameter  and 
150  feet  high  cost  $2,800,  and  one  13  feet  internal  diameter 
and  200  feet  high  cost  $8,750.  The  latter  had^  i6-inch 
walls  for  70  feet. 

The  formula  for  area  of  chimneys: 

1 20  X  square  feet  of  grate 

Area  = 

V  height 

A  table  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Wm.  Kent  and  is 
published  in  most  hand  books.  Mr.  Kent  based  his  table 
on  the  consumption  of  five  pounds  of  coal  per  horse- 
power, so  as  to  have  it  ample  during  bad  weather. 

Mr.  George  H.  Babcock's  rule  of  thumb  was :  "The 
area  of  chimney  should  be  ^  the  area  of  grate.  It  should 
never  be  less  than  i-io." 

In .  a  high  chimney,  the  velocity  being  greater,  the 
area  can  be  smaller  than  with  a  low  chimney.  There  is 
an  idea  that  the  chimney  should  have  an  area  equal  to  that 
of  all  the  tubes.  This  would  make  the  chimney  too  large. 
If  we  have  a  boiler  with  70  tubes  4  inches  in  diameter  we 
have  an  area  of  500  square  inches  and  a  friction  surface  of 
375  inches.  A  stack  28  inches  in  diameter  would  carry 
that  all  right,  and  this  would  have  a  friction  of  only  90 
inches.  Besides  we  have  seen  that  a  boiler  flue  is  never 
full  of  gas  at  the  full  velocity  of  chimney.  The  flues 
between  the  boiler  and  the  chimney  should  be  slightly 
larger  than  the  chimney,  as,  like  the  boiler  flues,  they  are 
generally  horizontal  and  have  bends. 

Of  late  years  many  owners  of  steam  plants  have  put 
in  induced  draft. 

One  of  the  drawbacks  to  chimney  draft  is  that,  when 
strong,  it  draws  air  through  all  cracks  and  interstices,  as 

101 


SIZES  OF  CHIMNEYS  WITH  APPROPRIATE  HORSE-POWER  BOILERS. 

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r^»  M  rfco  w   -f-r^o  N  r^O  ^"O  r^ooooco  t^ 

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B9jy 
9ApD9j;3 

M 

--------^^:-----o^s 

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COMMEKCIAL  HORSE-POWER. 

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IO2 


Induced  and  Forced  Draft. 


well  as  through  the  brickwork  itself,  thus  diluting  the 
gases  and  cooling  them. 

Induced  draft  has  the  same  drawback.  TheJnduced- 
draft  apparatus  is  made  up  of  steel  plates,  which  must  be 
acted  on  the  same  as  a  steel  stack.  It  is,  or  a  portion  of  it 
at  least,  subject  to  repairs  and  breakdowns  and  a  contin- 
uous expense  for  fuel.  The  products  of  combustion  are 
discharged  into  the  air  that  is  breathed  by  the  operatives 
and  nearby  residents. 

If  high  chimneys  are  not  desired,  would  it  not  be 
better  to  build  a  chimney,  say,  100  feet  high,  and  put  in 
the  air  by  fan  under  the  grate?  It  would  not  draw  air 
through  boiler  setting  to  cool  off  the  boiler,  and  the  sur- 
rounding air  would  be  purer.  The  apparatus  would  be 
more  durable  and  could  be  smaller,  as  the  volume  of  cold 
air  is  not  so  great  as  the  hot  air. 

Objections  have  been  made  to  the  steam  jet  for  aiding 
or  increasing  combustion,  on  account  of  the  large  amount 
of  steam  used. 

One  engineer  tried  to  learn  the  amount  of  steam 
used  with  steam  jets,  and  the  result  of  his  investigation 
was  that  the  steam  jet,  as  he  used  it,  required  8  per  cent, 
of  the  fuel  burned  to  operate  it.  He  then  took  the  differ- 
ence between  the  amount  of  fuel  used  when  running  with 
natural  draft  and  with  the  steam  jet,  and  found  the  net 
result  was  that  the  jet  took  2  per  cent,  more  coal. 

Whatever  system  of  draft  is  used  there  should  be  a 
draft  regulator.  There  are  damper  regulators  made  now 
that  are  very  powerful  and  will  regulate  the  steam  pres- 
sure within  2  pounds. 

For  burning  small  anthracite  and  use  a  steam  jet  to 
help  out.  Put  a  valve  in  the  steam  pipe  that  leads  to  the 
jets  and  arrange  the  damper  regulator  so  that  when  steam 

103 


Dampers. 

rises  it  will  close  this  valve  first  and  then  the  damper  in 
the  flue.  Of  course,  when  steam  lowers,  the  damper 
opens  first  and  then  the  jets. 


The  Engine  Room. 

T     T     T 

When  James  Watt  took  hold  of  the  steam  engine  it 
consisted  of  a  cylinder  in  which  steam  was  admitted  un- 
der the  piston  and  raised  it  to  the  top  of  the  stroke  when 
cold  water  was  admitted  and  the  vacuum,  or  rather,  the 
pressure  of  air  on  top  of  the  piston  forced  it  down,  thus 
doing  mechanical  work. 

Watt  built  a  separate  condenser  and  used  steam  on  both 
sides  of  the  piston.  He  also  invented  and  used  the  indi- 
cator. His  researches  led  him  to  foretell  the  advantage 
of  using  steam  expansively  and  of  compounding  the 
same,  but  he  did  not  live  to  see  it  carried  out. 

Later  mathematicians  took  hold  of  the  matter,  and,  by 
figures,  showed  the  saving  by  expanding  steam. 

A  professor  in  Providence  was  looking  over  these 
figures,  and,  becoming  interested,  took  them  to  a  young 
man  who  had  shown  inventive  ability  while  working  at 
the  harness  maker's  trade  by  inventing  the  sewing  ma- 
chine for  stitching  leather.  This  young  man  was  George 
H.  Corliss.  Elias  Howe  afterwards  invented  the  placing 
of  the  eye  at  the  point  of  the  needle,  thus  making  the 
sewing  machine  practical  for  all  purposes. 

Young  Corliss  set  about  making  an  expansion  engine, 

105 


What  Corliss  Did. 

the  point  of  cutting  off  to  be  determined  by  the  action  of 
the  governor  so  that  full  holier  pressure  should  be  main- 
tained in  the  cylinder  until  expansion  commenced. 

Expansion  of  steam  had  been  tried  with  poppet  valves 
and  a  fixed  cut-off,  but  had  not  met  with  much  success. 
The  poppet  valve  did  not  appeal  to  Mr.  Corliss,  neither 
did  the  slide  valve  with  its  long  ports  and  large  clear- 
ance, so  he  set  to  work  to  make  something  entirely  new. 
His  success  was  so  remarkable  as  to  place  him  as  the 
foremost  engineer  of  his  age,  with  the  probability  that 
centuries  will  go  by  before  his  name  will  be  forgotten. 

He  accomplished  four  things.  He  did  away  with 
crooked  steam  passages,  placing  a  valve  close  to  each  end 
of  the  cylinder,  with  short,  straight  ports,  thus  reducing 
the  clearance  to  a  minimum.  He  made  a  valve  that  while 
light,  was  rigid  and  would  keep  its  shape ;  that  was 
quickly  and  inexpensively  made,  requiring  no  scraping  or 
grinding,  and  that  would  remain  tight  as  long  as  the  slide 
valve.  By  the  use  of  the  wrist-plate  he  quickened  the 
motion  of  the  valves  at  the  right  time,  thus  improving  on 
the  motion  of  the  eccentric.  By  the  use  of  his  disengag- 
ing motion  he  brought  expansion  to  perfection. 

He  had  the  lot  of  most  inventors,  and  was  obliged  to 
force  his  invention  on  an  unwilling  public.  He  had  to 
take  all  the  responsibility,  and  in  many  instances  take 
his  pay  in  what  he  could  save  in  fuel.  This  in  the  end 
proved  fortunate  for  him,  as  in  most  cases  he  received 
far  in  excess  of  the  price  he  had  put  on  the  machine. 

At  the  time  Mr.  Corliss  was  selling  his  automatic  cut- 
off engines  for  what  he  could  save,  the  United  States 
Government  was  spending  money  in  experiments  to  show 
there  was  no  economy  in  using  steam  expansively. 

With  Mr.  Corliss  as  draftsman,  was  a  man  by  name  of 

106 


Wright  and   Corliss. 

William  Wright.  Wright  always  claimed  that  he  was  the 
original  designer  of  the  Corliss  valve.  When  a  man  cre- 
ates a  great  thing  he  is  apt  to  imitate  it  later.  Mr.  Wright 
never  afterwards  built  anything  that  remotely  resembled 
the  Corliss  valve.  He  invented  a  cam  motion — a  cam 
moving  around  a  central  cam,  its  position  being  deter- 
mined by  the  governor.  This  cam  operated  poppet  steam 
valves  and  made  an  automatic  cut-off  engine.  The  ex- 
haust was  two  slide  valves,  each  valve  being  placed  at 
the  cylinder  ends  so  as  to  reduce  clearance,  and  as  far  as 
possible  get  the  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Corliss. 

These  engines  were  built  for  a  number  of  years  by 
Woodruff  &  Beach,  at  Hartford,  Conn.  Mr.  Wright 
made  a  change  in  his  cam  and  governor  and  went  into 
business  for  himself.  After  a  time  he  became  convinced 
that  the  poppet  was  not  a  tight  valve  and  built  his 
engines  with  gridiron  valves. 

When  Mr.  Corliss'  patents  expired,  a  great  many 
builders  started  in  to  build  "improved"  Corliss  engines, 
and  some  of  them  have  made  rather  sad  work  of  it. 

In  Mr.  Corliss'  day,  piston  and  rotative  speeds  were 
slow,  and  he  did  not  live  to  see  the  enormous  amount  of 
work  that  the  steam  engine  was  to  do  in  the  generation 
of  electricity,  calling  for  higher  pressures,  faster  speed 
and  large  units.  In  all  this  work  there  has  been  a  chance 
for  inventive  and  constructive  talent  to  meet  the  entirely 
new  conditions. 

When  electricity  first  came  into  use  the  Corliss  engine 
was  thought  entirely  too  slow.  High-speed  engines  had 
become  partially  developed  and  the  new  field  developed 
them  rapidly,  and  it  was  for  a  time  given  entirely  over  to 
them. 

The  electric  light  company  at  Waterbury,  Conn.,  went 

107 


Piston    Valves. 

to  the  Corliss  Company  and  asked  them  to  build  a  cross- 
compound  engine  having  a  stroke  of  4  feet  and  to  run  at 
the  rate  of  80  revolutions  per  minute.  This,  at  the  time, 
was  considered  terrific  speed,  but  the  engine  company 
undertook  the  work,  which  turned  out  highly  satisfac- 
tory. Others  worked  in  the  same  direction,  and  results 
showed  that  for  hard  work  and  for  economy  and  long 
life,  the  Corliss  engine  built  for  the  new  conditions  was 
still  the  favorite. 

A  favorite  valve  for  a  long  time  for  the  piston  valve. 
This  is  a  straight  valve  moving  in  a  case.  Fig.  13  is  a 
typical  piston  valve.  As  the  steam  passes  by  the  ends 
and  through  the  center,  there  is  no  pressure  on  the  valve 
seat,  and  there  is  only  the  sliding  friction  due  to  its 
weight  and  that  due  to  the  tightness  of  the  valve  in  its 
case.  In  some  cases  this  valve  is  put  in  without  any  pack- 
ing rings  of  any  kind,  and  being  frictionless  nearly,  will 
be  fairly  tight  for  some  months  if  neatly  fitted.  To  use 
spring  rings  it  is  necessary  to  put  bars  across  the  port 
to  prevent  the  rings  expanding  into  the  ports  and  getting 
caught.  Another  method  is  to  make  a  shell  for  the  out- 
side of  the  valve  and  expand  it  with  set-screws.  This 
makes  as  rigid  a  valve  as  one  entirely  solid,  and  has  the 
single  advantage  of  being  adjustable  by  hand  instead  of 
getting  a  new  valve.  One  builder  for  a  time  made  a  valve 
that  could  be  adjusted  from  the  outside  when  the  engine 
was  running,  and  he  had  the  wrecks  incident  to  such  a 
device. 

The  piston  valves  are  made  to  operate  at  the  ends  of 
the  cylinder,  thus  imitating  the  Corliss  in  the  attempt  to 
get  short  ports.  Of  necessity,  their  ports  are  longer  than 
the  Corliss,  because  of  the  shape  of  the  valve,  and  also 
the  port  must  go  clear  around  the  valve. 

108 


Advantages  and  Objections. 

The  advantage  of  the  piston  valve  is  that  its  construc- 
tion is  lathe  work  and  can  be  quickly  and  cheaply  made ; 
it  is  nearly  frictionless,  can  be  operated  at  a  high  rate  of 
speed  and  requires  very  little  oil ;  all  its  mechanism  can 
be  light  and  easily  handled  by  the  governor.  The  objec- 
tions to  it  are  the  considerable  clearance,  the  rather  tortu- 
ous steam  passages  and  the  extreme  probability  of  its 
leaking  in  a  short  time. 


Fig.   43       Double   Ported  Piston  Valve  for  Valve  Engine. 


For  high  rotative  speeds  the  single  valve  can  be  made 
to  give  as  good  cards,  except  the  compression,  as  a  four 
valve  with  two  eccentrics,  with  the  same  speed.  The 
four-valve  engine,  however,  will  be  the  more  economical 
under  changes  of  load,  because  the  exhaust  valve  closure 
is  not  disturbed  by  the  governor  and  does  not  produce  the 
excessive  compression. 

The  shorter  the  stroke,  the  greater  the  percentage  of 
clearance.  This  is  again  increased  by  the  number  of  times 
the  clearance  spaces  are  filled  and  emptied  per  minute. 

109 


About  Engine   Design. 

When  looking  up  a  medium-speed  engine  (there  are 
no  slow  speeds  now)  sufficient  valve  area,  small  clear- 
ance, sufficient  area  for  bearings  and  pins,  and  one  that 
is  easy  of  access  to  all  parts  for  repairs,  are  the  points 
that  should  be  looked  after.  This  also  applies  to  engines 
of  all  classes. 

In  former  years  engines  were  designed  by  practical 
engineers  who  had  experience  with  them  or  who  watched 
the  operation  of  them  after  they  were  installed.  They 
were  also  assembled  in  the  shop  by  hand  or  hand  tools, 
and  all  the  mechanics  had  a  taste  of  putting  them  together 
under  conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  engineer  in  the 
engine-room,  and  they  were  made  easy  to  get  at,  get  apart 
and  get  together  again. 

Of  late  years,  altogether  too  many  have  been  designed 
by  draftsmen  who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  practical 
handling  of  them  after  they  had  once  left  the  shop,  with 
the  result  that  there  are  some  fearful  monstrosities.  They 
are  also  put  together  with  a  traveling  crane,  and  many 
nice  points  are  not  noticed  by  mechanics  there.  It  is 
true  that  engines  must  be  heavier  than  formerly,  but  there 
is  no  excuse  for  putting  a  stuffing  box  in  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  engineer  can  just  reach  it  at  arm's  length 
through  a  hot  hole  that  keeps  his  head  and  body  out. 

Some  builders  put  a  sheet-steel  case  over  the  cylinder, 
and  this  case  is  fitted  in  such  a  manner  that  to  put  it  on 
or  remove  it  the  whole  valve  motion  must  be  taken  off. 

One  type  of  engine  designed  to  be  direct  connected  to 
electric  generators  has  its  main  bearing  so  constructed 
that  the  armature  must  be  blocked  up,  fields  removed  and 
shaft  disconnected  to  get  to  the  adjustment  of  the  bear- 
ing. The  builder  says  he  does  this  to  prevent  monkeying 
with  it;  that  it  is  too  often  the  case  that  where  things 

no 


Horizontal  vs.  Vertical. 

are  handy  to  get  at  they  are  adjusted  out  of  shape  and 
use  in  a  short  time;  that  these  journals  will  run  two  or 
three  years  without  giving  trouble  if  let  alone,-  and  that 
if  they  will  do  that,  one  can  afford  to  be  put  to  a  little 
extra  trouble  when  adjustments  are  so  seldom  required. 

When  purchasing  large  cross-compound  engines  the 
difficulty  of  lubricating  the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  the 
large  number  of  cylinders  of  this  class  that  have  caused 
endless  delays  and  expense,  should  be  borne  in  mind. 

Another  thing  is  the  room  they  occupy.  Said  a  manu- 
facturer to  me:  "We  have  been  in  the  habit  of  put- 
ting in  Corliss  engines,  cross-compound,  owing  to  their 
durability,  small  need  for  repairs,  reliability  and  econ- 
omy, but  they  take  up  too  much  room.  In  our  business 
they  have  to  be  close  to  the  mill  machinery,  they  are  right 
in  the  way  of  our  work  and  reduce  the  production  the 
mill  ought  to  turn  out,  so  that  we  have  gone  to  putting 
in  high-speed  engines.  These  engines  will  have  less  life, 
will  consume  more  coal,  but  our  production  is  increased 
so  much  by  the  extra  space  that  the  extra  space  is  worth 
many  times  the  extra  cost  of  fuel,  etc.,  and  we  can  well 
afford  to  put  them  in,  let  them  wear  out  and  then  put  in 
more." 

In  these  cases  the  vertical  engine  is  the  solution.  The 
wear  on  the  cylinders  is  slight,  there  is  a  big  saving  in 
cylinder  oil  and  the  floor  space  is  small. 

There  is  one  drawback — the  weight  is  taken  from  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  and  put  on  the  crank  pin,  and  also 
the  engine  is  unbalanced,  as  the  weight  of  the  moving 
parts  is  all  downward  with  the  full  area  of  the  piston  to 
push  them  down,  and  only  the  area  of  piston  less  the  area 
of  piston  rod  to  pull  them  up;  also,  the  jerk  that  the 
engine  gets  at  the  bottom  of  the  stroke  when  it  takes 

•  in 


^Fig.  44.      Cylinder  Designed  to  Balance  Moving  Parts  on  Vertical  Engine. 


112 


Balancing  Vertical   Engines. 


steam  at  the  bottom  makes  a  noisy  engine,  and  on  boats 
gives  disagreeable  jerks. 

It  is  not  possible  to  balance  one  of  these  engines  by 
counterweights  in  the  crank,  as  when  the  engine  is  on 
the  bottom  center  the  counterweight  is  in  equilibrium. 
Some  engineers  argue  that  one  side  will  balance  the  other 
through  the  shaft,  but  if  they  will  stand  by  the  shaft  on 
a  boat  with  the  three-cylinder  engines  they  will  see  that 
this  is  not  true. 

Builders  of  engines  with  two-cylinders  and  cranks  set 
at  1 80  degrees  argue  that  in  their  case  one  side  balances 
the  other  through  the  shaft  when  they  have  good  counter- 
weights, but  to  balance  such  an  engine  with  counter- 
weights would  necessitate  the  putting  in  of  a  counter- 
weight in  the  low-pressure  crank  to  make  up  the  differ- 
ence between  the  high  and  low  pressure  moving  parts, 
and  putting  none  in  the  high-pressure  crank,  surely  not 
a  very  mechanical  device. 

Should  the  attempt  be  made  to  put  sufficient  counter- 
weight in  the  crank  to  balance  the  moving  parts,  it  will 
be  found  that  there  is  not  sufficient  room  for  the  neces- 
sary weight.  It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  pins  and  main 
journal  keyed  up  snug  to  prevent  jar  and  pound  on  the 
bottom,  and  this  means  an  excessive  amount  of  oil  and 
excessive  wear.  Even  with  this,  it  is  cheaper  to  put  in 
new  pins  and  brasses  than  new  pistons  and  rebore  large 
cylinders  on  horizontal  engines.  Builders  of  vertical 
engines  will  guarantee  better  economy  for  them  than  for 
the  horizontal  type. 

The  writer  designed  and  patented  a  cylinder  to  put 
on  top  of  the  steam  cylinder  of  a  vertical  engine,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  44.  This  device  is  simply  a  cylinder  open  at  the 
bottom  and  with  a  small  relief  valve  on  top  to  relieve  any 

113 


Pounds  and  their  causes. 

air  that  may  leak  in.  The  weight  of  all  the  moving 
parts  is  ascertained,  as  well  as  the  difference  between  the 
area  of  the  piston  at  the  bottom  and  top,  and  the  area  of 
the  balancing  piston  is  made  to  sustain  this  weight  with 
a  pressure  of  12  pounds  per  square  inch.  Vacuum  is 
formed  at  the  top  after  the  piston  has  traveled  a  short 
distance,  and,  as  the  bottom  is  open  to  the  atmosphere, 
the  whole  moving  parts  are  suspended  on  air  and  the 
resistance  of  the  air  going  down  carries  the  parts  back 
to  nearly  the  end  of  the  stroke,  when  they  are  let  down 
easily  on  the  pin  going  over  the  top  center.  As  they  are 
supported  at  the  bottom  center  by  the  small  piston,  the 
jar  is  removed  and  the  parts  can  be  run  looser,  with  the 
result  of  less  wear.  This  arrangement  should  remove 
the  disagreeable  jar  on  steamers  caused  by  the  engines 
going  around  the  bottom  center. 


Pounding  from  various  causes. 

An  engine  that  is  not  in  line  will  not  run  quietly. 
Sometimes  the  engine  wears  out  of  line  or  the  shaft  gets 
out  of  level  for  want  of  proper  adjustment  at  the  right 
time ;  it  perhaps  has  been  "tinkered"  with  and  gotten  out 
from  that  cause ;  some  portions  may  have  worn  faster  than 
others ;  the  foundation  may  have  not  settled  uniformly  or 
some  parts  have  been  too  weak  and  sprung  out  of  shape. 

There  are  altogether  too  many  cases  where  the 
engine  was  not  put  in  proper  alinement  when  built,  or 
pins  were  not  put  in  straight. 

A  self-contained  engine  had  been  run  for  a  number 
of  years ;  one  of  the  wheels  had  become  loose ;  the  cross- 
head  and  boxes  on  both  ends  of  the  rod  were  worn  and 

114 


Weak  Crossheads. 


che  builders  were  directed  to  send  new  parts  and  an 
attempt  would  be  made  to  get  the  wheel  tight  at  the  side 
of  the  engine.  To  this  plan  the  builders  objected,  stating 
that  they  must  have  the  engine  returned  to  the  shop  to 
do  a  good  job.  This  would  necessitate  shutting  down 
a  large  plant,  but  a  breakdown  gave  them  the  oppor- 
tunity. 

The  shaft,  rod  and  crosshead  were  sent,  but  were 
delayed  in  returning,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  get  it 
together  and  start  up  as  quickly  as  possible.  When  the 
engine  was  started  it  pounded  badly,  but  as  the  work 


Fig.  45.      Weak  points  in  Crossheads. 

required  this  engine  to  run  continuously  it  meant  con- 
siderable loss  to  stop  and  locate  the  trouble.  Another 
engine  was  therefore  purchased,  so  as  to  have  a  duplicate 
engine. 

Before  this  arrived  the  piston  rod  let  go.  New  studs 
for  the  cylinder  head  and  a  new  rod  were  made  and 
hustled  in  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  engine  continued  at 
work.  As  all  the  hands  were  busy  with  this  work,  there 
could  be  no  chance  to  hunt  up  the  trouble. 

Before  the  spare  engine  was  ready  the  crosshead 
let  go  at  points  shown  by  arrows  in  Fig.  45.  This  cross- 
head  was  cored  out,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines,  and  was 
rather  weak  at  the  square  corners. 


Frames  out  of  Line. 

The  spare  engine  was  gotten  together  and  put  into 
service.  A  new  crosshead  was  procured  by  a  nearby 
foundry,  and  when  it  was  put-  in  the  precaution  was 
taken  to  key  the  rod  up  snugly  on  the  crank-pin  and  drop 
the  other  end  down  on  to  the  crosshead  pin.  It  fitted 
squarely.  The  rod  was  then  disconnected  from  the 
crank-pin,  and  keyed  up  on  to  the  crosshead,  and  then 
dropped  down  onto  the  crank-pin,  and  that  came  square. 
The  engine  was  then  started  up,  and  it  ran  perfectly  quiet. 


o 

o 

o 

1     1 

Fig.  46.      Frame  out  of  line. 


The  old  crosshead  was  so  badly  broken  that  just 
what  the  trouble  was  could  not  be  determined,  but  the 
probability  is  that  the  pin  was  put  in  something  as  shown 
in  Fig.  45,  though  not  so  crooked. 

Had  the  trial  of  the  connecting  rod  been  made  with 
the  first  pin  in  the  same  manner  that  it  was  with  the 
second,  the  trouble  would  have  been  discovered  at  the 
outset.  When  setting  up  engines  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
try  the  connecting  rod,  as  described. 

Another  error  that  has  been  found  many  times  is 
shown  in  Fig.  46.  A  line  put  through  the  engine  will  show 
that  the  cylinder  is  not  in  line  with  the  guides  and  will 
have  to  be  thrown  around  by  putting  in  shims  at  either 
O  or  E. 

116 


Twisted  Guides. 

A  not  infrequent  defect  is  shown  in  Fig.  47,  and  can 
be  detected  by  placing  a  plumb,  as  shown.  This  is  par- 
ticularly bad  with  V-guides.  In  one  factory  I  have  in 
mind  there  are  four  engines  from  the  same  builder  with 
V-guides  that  stand  in  this  manner.  Fortunately,  the 


Fig.  47.      Guides  out  of  live  vertically. 

engines  run  forward  and  do  not  make  as  much  trouble 
as  the  running  backward. 

The  only  remedy  is  to  trim  down  the  shoes  at  A 
and  A'  until  the  crossheads  stand  plumb. 

There  is  no  excuse  for  a  V-guide.  There  have  been 
cases  where  the  foundation  under  a  cylinder  has  settled 

117 


Crank  Pin  not  Central. 

more  under  one   side  than  the  other  and  twisted   the 
guides. 

Pounding  from  this  cause  is  a  compound  noise,  and 
while  it  takes  place  on  the  center  the  pound  will  be  at 


-    O 


Fig.  48.       Crank  Pin  not  Central. 

the  crosshead  and  crank-pin  both,  but  not  exactly  the 
same  time. 

Another  trouble  that  sometimes  occurs  is  that  the 
center  line  through  the  engine  does  not  come  through 
center  of  pin,  as  shown  in  Fig.  48,  where  the  center  of 

118 


Cranks  out  of  Square. 

pin  is  the  line  A,  while  the  line  through  engine  is  at  B. 

The  remedy  for  this  is  to  trim  down  one  side  of  the 
brasses  and  add  on  to  the  other  side,  as  shown  in^Fig.  48. 
When  they  have  to  be  cut  off  on  the  side  toward  the 
crank  and  the  rod  is  round,  care  must  be  taken  that  the 


Fig.  49.  Fig.  50. 

Fig.  49.      Crank  disk  out  by  plumb. 
Fig.  50.      Crank  pin  put  in  crooked. 


large  part  of  the  rod  does  not  get  too  close  to  the  crank 
disk  when  the  crank-pin  is  at  the  forward  center.  If  the 
crosshead  is  one-sided,  the  same  course  may  be  pursued. 
To  determine  if  the  shaft  is  level,  suspend  a  plumb 
line,  as  in  Fig.  49.  If  it  is  out,  as  shown,  the  pound  will 

119 


Pistons  too  Small. 

not  be  on  the  center,  but  when  the  crank-pin  is  nearly  half 
way  between.  The  only  remedy  is  to  make  the  shaft 
level  and  with  a  pin  put  in  crooked,  as  in  Fig.  50,  a  new 
pin  put  in  straight  will  be  necessary. 

Should  a  piston  be  too  small,  as  shown  in  Fig.  51, 
and  a  larger  force  of  the  steam  strike  it  on  one  side,  the 
piston  will  be  forced  to  the  other  side  and  there  will  be 


Fig.    51.      Piston  too  Small. 


a  severe  pound.  When  the  cylinder  head  is  taken  off, 
nothing  out  of  the  way  can  be  seen.  The  remedy  is  a 
piston  with  a  broader  bearing  at  the.  bottom. 

A  cylinder  having  shoulders  will  pound.  A  Corliss 
or  similar  valve  having  end  play  may  pound  if  the  steam 
impinges  just  right  to  force  it  endwise.  The  valve  will 
wear  smoother  if  it  has  end  play,  and  unless  the  pound 
is  too  great  it  will  be  better  to  leave  it.  It  can  be  eased 

120 


Loose  Glands  or  Packing. 

somewhat  or  stopped  entirely  by  putting  a  little  plate 
and  spring  at  the  end  and  put  in  a  bolt  through  the  valve 
bonnet  to  adjust  the  tension  of  the  spring. 

Pounding  is  sometimes  caused  by  side  play  in  rod 
brasses,  but  the  engine  must  be  out  of  line  somewhere 
to  make  this  serious. 

A  loose  gland  or  loose  metallic  packing  in  the 
stuffing-box  will  make  a  disagreeable  pound.  A  loose 
piston  rod,  either  in  the  crosshead  or  the  piston,  will 
pound. 


FL-— 


Fig.    52.      Lining  up  from  piston  rod. 

Sometimes,  if  brasses  get  loose  so  as  to  turn  in  the 
straps  or  stub  ends,  they  will  cause  a  pound.  If  an 
engine  is  working  very  light  and  the  internal  surface  of 
the  cylinder  is  exposed  chiefly  to  low  pressure  and  to  the 
condenser,  a  large  amount  of  steam  will  be  condensed 
when  the  valve  opens  and  will  cause  a  snapping  in  the  cyl- 
inder like  entrained  water.  This  is  sometimes  mistaken 
for  pounding,  but  it  is  really  water.  It  will  wash  off  the 
cylinder  oil  from  the  wearing  surfaces,  which  might 
cause  cutting,  but  other  than  this  does  no  real  harm. 

When  the  piston  rod  runs  straight,  a  line  can  be 
strung,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.  Put  the  engine  as  near  the 
outer  center  as  will  allow  measurements  to  be  made  from 
both  sides  of  the  disk  above  the  rod.  Put  a  stick  tightly 

121 


Locomotive   Pounds. 

back  of  the  gland  and  draw  a  line  X  parallel  with  the 
piston  rod,  measuring  from  B  B'.  Then  take  the  distance 
from  the  disk  at  C  C. 

Should  there  be  a  crank  instead  of  a  disk,  both  in 
this  case  and  in  Fig.  48,  measure  from  the  end  of  the  pin 
on  one  center,  turn  the  engine  to  the  opposite  center,  and 
make  the  same  measurements  in  this  position.  An  engine 
in  perfect  alinement  with  the  bearings  well  fitted  and 
keyed  fairly  snug  will  run  smoothly  with  very  little  com- 
pression. All  that  will  be  necessary  is  to  have  the 
exhaust  valves  close  quickly  enough  to  have  sufficient  lap 
to  make  them  tight  on  the  admission  of  steam. 

A  locomotive  engineer  discovered  a  pound  on  one 
side,  and  located  it  in  the  crosshead.  He  took  out  the 
piston  rod,  put  a  thickness  of  letter-paper  around  the 
taper,  put  the  rod  back  and  drew  it  up  with  the  key,  and 
the  trouble  was  over. 

When  paper  can  be  drawn  down  tight  and  held  rigid 
it  makes  an  excellent  packing  for  this  purpose,  or  for  any 
place  that  needs  filling  up,  even  top  of  a  foundation  for 
supporting  an  engine. 

On  a  stationary  engine  a  pound  at  the  crosshead  was 
found  to  be  the  jam  nut  had  become  loosened.  When 
these  nuts  get  loose  they  give  warning  by  pounding. 
When  the  rod  gets  loose  on  a  key  it  will  do  the  same 
thing.  Also  when  a  piston  gets  loose  there  will  be  a 
pound  in  the  cylinder.  If  it  is  simply  forced  on  the  rod 
and  riveted  over  it  will  rarely  give  warning  when  loose, 
but  comes  off  at  once. 

A  pound  was  located  at  the  crosshead  of  an  engine 
and  the  men  in  charge  were  unable  to  find  it,  as  the  jam 
nut  and  everything  about  the  crosshead  was  snug  and 
tight.  A  consulting  engineer  was  sent  for,  who  un- 

122 


Set  screws  don't  hold  fly-wheels. 

screwed  the  jam  nut  and  the  rod  was  found  broken  off 
in  the  center  of  the  nut. 

An  engineer  was  sent  for,  with  the  information  that 
on  one  of  the  engines  the  crank  pin  was  heating  and 
pounding.  This  was  caused  by  the  pin  being  loose  in 
the  crank. 

Should  a  crank  or  wheel  become  loose  on  the  shaft 
they  will  give  notice  by  a  creaking  noise,  sometime  be- 
fore there  is  any  danger.  There  will  also  be  a  slight 
exudition  of  oil  having  a  rusty  appearance. 

A  certain  engine  had  a  shaft  14"  diameter  on  which 
was  a  wheel  20  feet  diameter,  having  a  heavy  rim. 

This  wheel  had  been  creaking  at  the  hub  for  some 
time.  The  engineer  finally  decided  it  was  getting  seri- 
ous. After  a  talk  with  some  of  his  engineering  friends 
he  submitted  the  following  plan  to  the  management : 
Have  a  new  shaft  and  crank  made.  Borrow  some  small 
engines  and  set  them  up  to  do  the  lighter  work  and  get 
a  sufficient  amount  of  the  heavier  work  ahead,  and  thus 
keep  up  the  product.  Then  take  the  wheel  and  shaft  out, 
bore  the  hub  to  fit  the  new  shaft  and  put  it  in  service. 

It  was  estimated  that  the  loss  from  stoppage  of  this 
engine  was  $1,000  per  day. 

Now,  in  these  works  there  was  a  machinist  who 

was  styled  M — .  M ,  who  was  a  good  talker  and  who 

had  succeeded  in  getting  the  management  to  think  there 
was  nothing  in  mechanics  he  was  not  master  of.  He 
reported  there  was  no  danger  with  the  wheel,  but  should 
anything  happen  he  could  tighten  it  without  any  such 
expense. 

A  few  weeks  after  this  the  engineer  left  for  other 
fields,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  wheel  slid  along  the 
shaft  until  it  brought  up  against  the  foundation.  This 

123 


Where  they  failed. 

meant  a  shutdown.  After  a  day's  delay  ($1,000)  the 
machinist  shoved  the  wheel  back  to  place,  and  the  engine 
started  and  ran  a  few  days,  when  it  was  again  over 
against  the  foundation. 

The   wheel   was   again   shoved   back   to   place,   two 
steel  set  screws  were  put  in  in  a  slanting  direction,  as 


Fig.  53.      Set  screws  that  did'nt  hold  the  fly-wheei. 


shown  in  Fig.  53,  extending  through  into  the  shaft.  After 
a  few  days'  delay  (more  $1,000)  the  engine  was  again 
started,  and  ran  a  few  months,  when,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, the  set  screws  broke  off  level  with  the  shaft,  and 
the  wheel  was  again  against  the  foundation.  A  new 
shaft  was  then  procured,  and  the  wheel  put  on  in  proper 
shape.  This  required  a  shutdown  of  a  month. 

124 


Pressing  crank  pins. 

A  heavy-rimmed  wheel  on  an  engine  cannot  be  held 
with  set  screws,  but  must  hug  the  shaft  tightly. 

This  engine  had  a  crank  pin  7"  diameter,  and  three 
of  them  had  become  loose. 

A  new  pin  was  made,  .01  inch  larger  than  the  hole, 
estimated  to  require  100,000  pounds  pressure  to  force  it 
in  place. 

When  about  half  way  in,  taking  about  90,000  pounds 
pressure,  one  of  the  straps  broke,  and  by  the  time  another 
was  made  and  in  place  it  required  150,000  pounds  and 
some  persuasion  with  a  hammer.  This  pin  did  not  come 
loose.  This  was  at  the  time  when  the  engineer  was  look- 
ing up  the  best  way  to  take  care  of  the  wheel.  At  the 
time  there  was  a  mechanic  on  the  premises  superintending 
the  erection  of  machinery  built  by  a  large  machinery  firm 
and  the  subject  of  forced  fits  came  up. 

This  mechanic  was  not  in  favor  of  building  machinery 
so  as  to  require  high  pressures  to  force  them  on.  When 
asked  what  he  would  do  if  they  got  loose,  he  said  he  would 
bush  them.  Asked  if  his  people  had  ever  done  that,  he 
replied,  "Yes,  lots  of  them."  Further  discussion  seemed 
useless. 

Lining  up  an   Engine. 

The  writer  had  the  annoying  experiences  which  most 
engineers  encounter  with  pounding,  hot  journals,  water, 
etc.  He  learned  that  the  most  fruitful  cause  of  pounding 
is  want  of  alinement.  Keying  up  an  engine  out  of  line 
makes  the  trouble  worse  in  many  cases. 

The  old  V-guide  that  holds  a.  cross-head  and  con- 
necting rod  rigid  in  a  straight  line  when  the  rest  of  the 
engine  is  in  such  shape  that  it  -wants  to  turn  a  little  is 

125 


Lining  up  Engines. 


54  55 

Figs.  54-55       Two  ways  of  holding  a  center  line. 

one  of  the  annoyances.  If  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  main 
journals  wears  faster  than  the  other  the  V-guide  makes 
a  fuss  about  it,  whereas  a  round  guide  would  go  all  right. 
In  one  case  where  the  foundation  under  the  cylinder 
had  settled  slightly,  so  that  it  threw  the  guides  slightly 
out  of  line  the  struggle  between  cross-head  and  crank  as 
to  which  should  be  master  was  noisy.  As  usual  at  such 
times,  the  shop  was  too  busy  to  shut  down  and  put  in  a 
new  foundation  without  warning,  so  it  was  ascertained 


Figs.  56-57.      Two  views  of  stake. 
126 


Holding  the  line. 


how  much  was  necessary  to  turn  the  cross-head  so  that  it 
stood  straight,  planed  one  side  of  the  cross-head  at  the 
top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom  put  in  liners  alongside 
the  shoes,  and  the  conflict  was  over.  Bored  guides  would 
have  saved  that  work. 

To  ascertain  if  the  engine  is  in  line,  take  out  all  the 
reciprocating  parts  and  put  a  line  through  the  cylinder 
reaching  to  front  of  the  crank.  This  line  should  be  a  fine, 
braided  line,  of  silk.  It  can  be  fastened  and  centered  in 
the  back  end  of  the  cylinder  with  a  stick  bolted  with  one 


Fjg.  58.      For  holding  the  line. 


bolt,  as  in  Fig.  54,  or  can  reach  across  and  be  fastened  with 
two,  as  in  Fig.  55.  In  front  of  the  crank  set  a  stake  that 
can  be  adjusted  sideways,  as  shown  in  front  and  side  views 
in  Figs.  56  and  57.  Put  the  line  as  near  central  of  the 
cylinder  as  possible  and  draw  it  tight  so  that  there  shall 
be  no  sag.  Commence  at  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder  and 
center  the  line. 

A  better  way  for  holding  the  end  of  the  line  is  to  notch 
a  piece  of  iron,  as  shown  in  Fig.  58,  and  put  screws 
into  the  board  through  the  notches.  The  iron  strip  can 

127 


Shimming  the  frame. 

then  be  fastened  just  tight  enough  to  hold  it  in  place 
and  raised  or  lowered  to  suit  the  work.  Let  the  cord  lay 
across  the  iron  strip  and  suspend  a  weight  on  it  sufficient- 
ly'heavy  to  hold  the  cord  tight. 

The  best  thing  to  use  for  caliper  is  a  pine  stick  nearly 
sharp  at  one  end  and  a  pin  in  the  other  that  can  be 
drawn  out  or  pushed  in  for  adjustment.  Have 
one  for  the  end  of  the  cylinder  and  one  for  the 
stuffing-box.  After  the  line  is  central  at  the  cylinder  end, 
try  it  through  the  stuffing-box,  moving  the  line  at  its 
support  at  the  stake  in  front  of  the  crank.  When  central 


Fig.  59.      Lining  frame  with  shims. 

here,  try  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder  and  so  alternate 
until  the  line  is  central  at  both  points.  It  is  then  in  line 
with  the  cylinder  and  all  other  parts  should  be  in  line 
with  it.  Try  the  guides.  One  builder  had  most  of  the 
engines  that  he  built  and  erected  crooked  at  the  point  A, 
Fig.  59,  and  shims  were  required  to  throw  the  cylinder 
around  into  line  with  the  guides. 

Bring  the  crank-pin  down  to  the  line,  or  if  the  crank 
is  down,  which  is  the  better  position,  bring  it  up  to  the 
line  and  see  if  the  line  is  central  to  the  pin.  Turn  the 
crank  around  to  the  other  center.  If  the  line  is  central 
at  both  points,  it  is  all  right ;  if  the  line  comes  one  side  of 
the  center  on  one  side  and  on  the  other  side  on  the  other, 

128 


A  quick  alignment  test. 

— --_._ 

the  outside  journal  wants  swinging  around,  if  a  single 
engine;  if  double,  one  of  the  cylinders  may  have  to  be 
moved.  If  the  line  comes  to  the  same  side  of  the-  center 
of  the  pin  when  the  crank  is  in  both  positions,  then  the 
shaft  journals  are  not  set  right. 

The  cheapest  and  quickest  way  to  overcome  this  is 
to  take  off  the  required  amount  of  metal  from  one  side  of 


9 

Fig.  60.      Leveling  shaft  by  plumb  line. 

the  crank-pin  boxes  and  sweat,  or  solder  an  equal  amount 
on  the  other  side. 

A  temporary  alinement  can  be  made  without  taking 
the  engine  apart  by  putting  the  engine  on  the  back  center 
and  putting  a  line  alongside  the  engine  parallel  with  the 
piston  rod  and  then  measuring  off  to  the  crank-pin  or  to 
points  on  the  disk  from  that  line. 

129 


Where  the  belt  man  was  wrong. 

To  find  if  the  shaft  is  level,  drop  a  plumb  line  outside 
of  the  crank-pin  when  it  is  up,  as  in  Fig.  60,  and  then  turn 
the  engine  over  until  the  pin  is  down.  This  can  be  done 
with  steam  and  without  disconnecting  anything.  Some 
do  it  by  dropping  a  line  down  the  side  of  the  wheel. 

A  foundation  for  an  engine,  shafting,  etc.,  was  made 
and  the  engine  was  put  in  place.  The  shaft  man  came 
along  and  set  up  the  shafting  by  marks  that  were  given 
him.  The  man  who  was  to  put  on  the  belt  went  to  line 
up  the  pulley  on  the  shaft,  and  it  was  out.  He  sent  for 
the  engineer  and  told  him  that  to  get  the  engine  in  line 
with  the  shaft  the  back  end  of  the  engine  would  have  to 
be  swung  around  i^  inches.  As  the  foundation  bolts 
were  cemented  in,  this  meant  the  cutting  out  of  the  holes 
in  cylinder  feet  and  a  bad  job.  A  transit  was  procured 
and  the  whole  job  gone  over,  proving  that  everything  was 
in  line  and  the  work  put  up  correctly.  The  belt  man  was 
asked  how  he  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  engine 
was  out  of  line  with  the  shaft  and  he  put  a  line  alongside 
the  pulley  on  the  engine  and  another  alongside  the  pulley 
on  the  driven  shaft,  which  showed  that  one  of  them  was 
badly  out.  He  was  asked  to  turn  the  line  shaft  half  way 
around  and  when  this  was  done  the  work  was  out  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

A  pulley  may  be  turned  up  true,  but  it  is  not  always 
put  on  the  shaft  true — in  fact,  seldom  is — so  that  when 
anything  is  attempted  by  line  by  using  the  side  of  a  pulley, 
it  should  be  demonstrated  first  that  the  pulley  runs  abso- 
lutely true. 

Sometimes  a  pillow  block  is  not  set  absolutely  level 
like  Fig.  61,  and  there  will  be  heating  on  one  end,,  and 
after  a  time  this  bearing  will  be  out  of  shape,  so  that  the 
only  remedy  is  re-boring. 

130 


About  pedestal  bearings. 


It  has  been  the  custom  to  make  crank  bearings  like 
Fig.  62,  with  the  base  of  the  bottom  shell  narrower  than 
the  side  shells,  so  that  when  the  cap  was  screwed  down 
hard  the  bottom  shell  was  spread  out,  causing  the  bearing 
to  heat.  The  base  of  the  bottom  shell  should  be  as  wide 
as  the  sides. 

Eccentrics  are  usually  held  in  place  by  set-screws 
through  the  hub  of  the  eccentric  and  against  the  shaft. 
This  forces  one  side  of  the  hub  away  from  the  shaft,  and 


Fig.  61.     Shaft  out  of  line. 


Fig.  62.      Poor  bottom  shell. 


light  eccentrics  are  distorted,  causing  heating.  One 
builder  has  recognized  this  evil  and  his  practice  is  to 
drill  into  the  shaft  and  draw  the  eccentric  to  the  shaft, 
thus  keeping  it  in  true  form.  There  is  a  slot  in  the  hub 
at  the  bolt  hole  for  adjusting  the  eccentric. 

The  question  of  the  wear  of  rings  and  cylinders  of 
modern  engines  is  an  interesting  one. 

An  engineer  was  interested  in  having  four  large 
engines  built  and  there  was  a  verbal  agreement  that  the 
last  cut  should  be  with  a  ^-inch  feed  and  the  cylinder 
left  rough.  When  the  engines  came  the  cylinders  were 

131 


Cylinder  Oils. 

smooth.  He  went  to  the  agent  and  then  to  the  superin- 
tendent to  know  why  they  were  bored  smooth.  He  didn't 
know  and  wanted  to  know  "What  there  was  about  boring 
cylinders  anyhow."  The  engineer  told  him  he  had  started 
a  great  many  engines  and  never  knew  of  a  cut  cylinder. 
Cutting  a  new  cylinder  did  not  seem  to  be  possible. 
Since  he  went  into  the  electric  business  there  was  all 
kinds  of  trouble  with  cut  cylinders — even  one  of  the  super- 
intendent's engines,  only  a  22-inch  cylinder,  had  been  cut 
while  in  charge  of  his  own  man.  He  went  to  investi- 
gating and  found  that  with  coarse  cuts  and  the  cylinders 
full  of  little  ridges,  any  clinging,  should  it  start,  would 
only  take  off  the  top  of  the  ridge.  It  took  a  year  to 
wear  a  cylinder  smooth,  but  it  was  tight  all  the  time,  and 
when  it  did  get  its  surface  it  was  a  natural  one  and  there 
was  no  trouble.  When  electricity  came  into  the  field  it 
brought  a  new  class  of  men  who  thought  they  should  be 
bored  smooth.  The  trouble  with  this  is  that  if  there  was 
a  disposition  to  cling,  a  little  shaving  would  start  and  go 
the  whole  length  of  the  cylinder. 

Cylinder  oils  have  many  times  been  blamed  unjustly 
for  cut  cylinders.  One  builder  had  a  low  pressure  cylin- 
der cut  and  there  seemed  no  way  to  prevent  it.  He  took 
off  the  cylinder  head  of  the  low  pressure  cylinder,  run- 
ning with  one  end  and  the  high  pressure  side,  and  had 
an  oil  syringe  so  that  oil  could  be  injected  to  any  part  of 
the  cylinder.  Oil  was  applied  liberally  but  there  were 
spots  all  over  the  cylinder  that  would  get  red  hot  and 
it  was  not  possible  to  prevent  it  with  oil.  There  were 
two  packing  rings  and  he  had  an  idea  that  possibly  these 
packing  rings  brushed  the  oil  away.  He  took  out  one  ring 
and  rounding  the  edges  of  the  other  and  the  engine  went 
off  without  any  more  trouble. 

132 


Cylinder  Bushings. 

One  large  engine  with  the  cylinder  bushed  had  the 
bushing  cut  and  another  was  put  in  only  to  go  the  same 
way.  A  third  was  made.  On  boring  it  the  iron  was 
found  to  be  soft,  but  was  put  in  to  run  until  they  could 
get  a  hard  one.  When  the  hard  one  was  ready  it  was 
found  that  the  soft  one  was  wearing  all  right  and  the 
trouble  there  was  over. 

Babbitt  liberally  applied  to  both  junk  and  packing 
rings  has  been  used  in  some  cases  with  good  results. 
One  builder  told  of  a  place  where  he  had  trouble  and 
put  in  babbitt  which  cured  the  trouble,  and  he  thought 
he  had  a  remedy  for  all  such  cases.  Other  engines  he 
put  it  into  were  badly  cut.  Rings  of  ordinary  copper 
were  then  tried,  and  they  started  off  beautifully,  but  in 
the  next  case  they  proved  no  better  than  iron  rings.  This 
builder  has  given  up  being  sure. 


Exhaust  Pipes  for  Vertical  Engines. 

Vertical  engines  have  come  into  use  for  various  rea- 
sons and  will  be  used  more  when  their  utility  is  more 
generally  understood. 

The  large  low-pressure  cylinders  on  compound  hori- 
zontal engines  require  an  excessive  amount  of  com- 
pounded cylinder  oil,  and  even  then  there  is  much  trouble 
with  many. 

Where  water  is  bad,  or  scarce,  or  dear,  and  surface 
condensers  are  used,  it  is  very  difficult  to  separate  the 
compounded  oil. 

WThere  space  is  limited  the  vertical  is  the  only 
solution. 

There  are  some  verticals  sold  whose  builders  have 

133 


Exhaust  passages. 

not  had  practical  experience,  and  as  a  result  the  engines 
give  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  An  example  of  this  is  shown 
in  Fig.  63.  This  shows  the  principle  on  which  the  exhaust 


Figs,  63-65-66.     Exhaust  outlets. 
Fig,  64,      Low  pressure  piston, 

side  of  this  engine  is  built.  On  the  opposite  side  are  the 
steam  valves,  also  piston  valves. 

This  engine  has  a  large  clearance,  but  the  chief  defect 
is  in  the  exhaust  outlet. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  is  in  the  center.     All  the 

134 


Water  in  Cylinders. 

condensed  water  from  the  top  is  thrown  to  the  bottom. 
When  the  bottom  valve  opens,  the  water  from  both  top 
and  bottom  must  pass  upward  and  turn  the  right  angle 
with  the  steam  to  get  out.  This  it  will  do  if  the  engine 
is  loaded  and  the  exhaust  passages  are  filled  with  steam. 
When  the  engine  has  a  light  load  the  water  falls  back, 
enters  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  and  makes  all  kind  of 
trouble.  This  engine  has  pistons  with  conical  faces,  and 
the  bottom  head  is  a  beautiful  water-pocket.  It  is  a 
delight  for  the  engineer  to  take  care  of  the  rod  packing 
and  scoop  up  the  water  that  is  thrown  in  all  directions. 
The  maker  of  metallic  packing  for  this  engine  has  little 
peace  in  life.  The  valves  being  of  the  piston  type,  there 
is  no  escape  for  the  water  except  such  as  has  gone  down 
the  rods,  and  there  are  cracked  pistons,  and  broken  jour- 
nal cap  bolts,  these  apparently  being  the  weaker  part  of 
the  engine. 

A  section  of  the  low-pressure  piston  is  shown  in 
Fig.  63.  The  piston  is  a  single  casting  with  a  rebate  joint 
for  junk  ring,  and  the  follower  is  a  ring  of  metal  held 
in  position  with  tap  bolts.  The  distress  in  this  cylinder 
from  water  showed  itself  in  the  loosening  and  breaking 
of  these  tap  bolts. 

This  engine  drives  a  railway  generator.  The  cars 
are  of  the  6o-seat  type,  and  run  at  regular  railroad  speed. 
The  schedule  is  such  that  for  about  one-half  hour  the 
cars  are  at  the  terminal  stations  or  on  down  grades.  At 
such  times  the  pistons  pounding  on  the  water  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cylinders  is  a  delight  to  mechanical  ears. 
When  the  cars  strike  the  up  grades,  which  a  portion  of 
them  do  nearly  simultaneously,  and  the  engine  is  loaded, 
the  water  will  be  driven  out  and  quiet  reigns  until  a  short 
time  after  the  light  load  comes  on. 

US 


Breaks  from  Water. 

Most  of  the  trouble  could  be  obviated  by  making  the 
exhaust  passage  like  that  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  The 
pockets  caused  by  the  conical  pistons  and  at  bottoms  of 
valves  would  give  trouble,  however,  in  keeping  the  rods 
tight. 

An  engine  was  wrecked  by  the  breaking  of  the  cross- 
head  end  of  the  connecting  rod.  This  end  was  made  of 
ordinary  yellow  brass  screwed  on  to  the  end  of  rod. 

The  throttle  had  been  closed  by  an  automatic  device, 
and  the  engineer  had  unhooked  the  wrist-plate  to  stop  the 
engine  by  hand  in  the  usual  manner,  when  this  casting 
gave  way.  The  question  then  arose  as  to  the  cause  of  the 
casting  breaking  at  just  that  time. 

Examination  of  the  break  showed  that  there  were  two 
small  places  where  cinder  had  got  in  the  mixture  when 
poured  and  there  was  also  evidence  of  crystallization.  The 
engine  was  a  vertical  Corliss  type,  shown  in  Fig.  65.  The 
exhaust  was  the  old-fashioned  kind,  with  the  exhaust 
chamber  surrounding  a  portion  of  the  outside  of  the  cylin- 
der. This  type  is  bad  enough  when  horizontal,  but  when 
set  up  on  end  it  is  barbarous. 

We  have  here  the  same  feature  in  a  modified  form, 
as  mentioned  in  the  piston  valve  engine,  with  two  excep- 
tions in  its  favor.  It  has  a  flat  head,  and  there  is  a 
chance  to  keep  the  rod  tight.  Tt  has  Corliss  steam  valves, 
and  there  is  a  chance  for  a  partial  escape  of  water  into  the 
steam  pipe. 

When  the  engine  runs  light,  there  will  be  some  shock 
when  it  strikes  the  water  that  in  time  will  cause  the  weak 
est  part  to  give  way. 

This  type  of  engine,  either  vertical  or  horizontal, 
should  have  the  exhaust  chamber  arranged  as  shown  in 
Fig.  66,  the  valves  in  circular  form  with  port  through  the 

136 


Piston   Rods  And  Follower  Bolts. 

center  and  seat  on  what  in  this  engine  is  the  back  of  the 
valve.  This  brings  the  steam  pressure  top  of  the  valve 
to  hold  it  on  its  seat,  thus  doing  away  with  springs,  as 
well  as  reducing  clearance.  Vertical  engines  should  have 
the  outlet  at  bottom  as  shown,  horizontal  in  center. 
Water,  in  these  cases,  does  not  flood  the  cylinder  or  cause 
immediate  wreck,  but  it  will  cause  distress  on  weak  parts 
for  future  trouble.  Engines  working  with  full  and  con- 
tinuous load  will  generally  clear  themselves  of  water.  It 
is  the  irregularly  loaded  ones  that  give  cause  for  appre- 
hension. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  in  both  these  cases  the  valves 
are  shown  reversed  from  the  position  they  would  be  in 
when  in  operation.  This  is  to  show  the  easy  path  for  the 
water  to  flow  back  into  the  cylinder  when  the  light 
exhaust  has  left  it  and  the  cylinder  is  empty. 

These  are  cases  where  the  designer  "didn't  think.''' 


Piston   Rods  and  Follower  Bolts. 

An  engineer  was  told  one  morning  that  the  back  cylin- 
der head  of  one  of  the  engines  had  gone  through  the 
engine-room  door  and  was  lying  out  in  the  yard. 

The  rod  was  what  is  known  as  a  screwed  rod  and  had 
broken  just  outside  the  jam  nut;  the  piston  had  taken  out 
head,  doors  and  all.  The  end  of  the  cylinder  was  cracked 
some,  but  it  looked  as  though  it  could  be  strapped  if  a  new 
rod  and  piston  could  be  had.  The  front  head  was  all  right. 
The  engineer  took  the  jam  nut  for  size  of  thread  and  oth- 
er necessary  dimensions  and  started  for  the  builders,  feel- 
ing that  a  screwed  rod  was  not  just  the  thing.  At  a  place 
where  he  changed  cars  the  train  he  was  to  take  was  half 

i37 


Key  or  Screw — Which  ? 

an  hour  late  and  when  it  arrived  the  locomotive  had  been 
through  his  experience. 

A  piston  rod  had  broken  in  the  key  slot  in  cross-head. 
Here  was  a  keyed  rod  broken ;  at  the  shop  he  saw  an 
engine  cylinder  wrecked  by  a  break  in  the  key.  Here 
were  two  keyed  rods  broken  to  one  screwed.  Which  plan 
was  the  safer? 

After  he  arrived  at  the  shop  he  received  a  telephone 
from  home  that  as  the  cylinder  cooled  off  the  cracks 
extended  and  new  ones  showed  up ;  that  there  was  no 
hope  of  saving  it,  and  the  only  thing  to  do  was  to  get  a 
new  cylinder,  which  was  done. 

There  was  this  difference  between  the  stationary  engine 
and  the  locomotive :  The  bolts  holding  the  head  of  the 
stationary  engine  were  made  too  large,  and  when  the 
strain  came  and  something  had  to  go,  the  expensive  cyl- 
inder took  the  punishment.  On  the  locomotive  the  work- 
ing strain  on  the  bolts  had  been  carefully  calculated ;  they 
were  made  strong  enough  for  that  and  no  more,  and  when 
the  shock  came  the  bolts  let  go,  the  cylinder  was  unin- 
jured as  well  as  the  head  and  piston.  All  that  was  neces- 
sary was  a  new  rod  and  a  new  set  of  small  bolts. 

If  stationary  engine  builders  would  take  lessons  from 
locomotive  builders  in  this  respect,  there  would  be  less 
disastrous  wrecks  when  there  is  trouble  with  the  back 
head. 

There  is  one  other  trouble  that  has  caused  a  great 
many  bills  of  expense,  and  that  is :  follower  bolts  on  the 
piston.  With  good,  tough  iron  bolts  nicely  fitted  there 
should  be  no  trouble.  Many  bolts  are  not  properly  fitted 
and  they  get  loose  and  come  out,  and  but  few  engines 
have  clearance  enough  for  them.  A  follower  bolt  should 
be  fitted  so  as  to  require  some  pressure  of  the  wrench  all 

138 


Corliss'  Way  of  Doing  It. 


the  way.  It  should  not  stick  when  part  way  in.  It  should 
be  set  up  snug,  but  not  enough  pressure  should  be  put 
upon  it  to  strain  it  in  any  way.  A  great  many  follower 
bolts  are  strained  beyond  their  elastic  limit  and  they 
break  when  at  work.  Either  of  these  evils  is  the  result 
of  carelessness  or  incompetency.  According  to  the  obser- 
vation of  Mr.  Corliss,  the  most  prolific  cause  of  wrecked 
engines  was  broken  follower  bolts,  and  these  broken  bolts 
were  caused  by  screwing  them  up  too  hard.  It:  was  a  rare 
thing  if  they  got  loose.  To  avoid  the  possibility  of  get- 
ting too  much  strain  on  them,  during  the  latter  part  of 


Fig.  67.      Corliss  follower  bolt.  Fig.  68.      Tapered  plug  for  screwing  in. 


his  life  he  had  them  made  like  Fig.  67,  the  bolt  large,  with 
fine  thread  and  a  tapered  socket  in  the  end.  This  was  set 
up  with  a  tapered  plug,  Fig.  68,  so  that  when  a  certain 
strain  was  put  on  the  plug  it  would  come  out.  This 
worked  well  for  a  time,  but  with  some  engineers  who 
did  not  adjust  their  pistons  often  the  bolts  would  stick 
and  the  tapered  plug  would  not  hold,  so  engineers  had 
to  invent  something  to  start  the  bolts,  and  the  same  device 
that  would  start  them  when  stuck  would  also  set  them  up 
too  tight.  However,  these  bolts  were  so  large  there  was 
little  trouble  from  breaking. 

139 


Prof.  Sweet's  Plan. 

During  later  years,  when  the  practice  has  been  to  make 
parts  interchangeable,  some  builders  have  bought  ma- 
chine bolts  of  steel,  and  in  most  cases  of  this  kind  the 
bolts  are  loose  fitting,  especially  so  after  they  have  been 
in  use  and  have  been  removed  a  few  times.  An  old  bolt, 
or  a  new  one  put  into  an  old  hole,  makes  a  bad  job,  and 
generally  they  are  too  small.  If  builders  of  stationary 
engines  would  make  the  follower  bolts  on  pistons  larger 
and  pay  more  attention  to  the  fitting,  and  make  the  back 
cylinder  head  bolts  smaller,  there  would  be  less  expense 
for  their  customers  from  breakdowns. 


Fig.  69.      Sweets'  flower  bolt.  Fig.  70.      A  slow-acting  (?)  junk  ring. 


Prof.  John  E.  Sweet  writes: 

"We  overcome  the  difficulty  perfectly  by  doing  away 
with  that  sore  of  bolt.  The  drawing  shows  what  we  use 
and  the  success  comes  from  riveting  in  the  stud  and  turn- 
ing down  the  body  to  the  bottom  of  the  thread.  The  stud 
will  stretch  one-half  inch  before  it  will  break,  and  before 
that  takes  place  the  end  of  the  nut  will  be  shoved  off,  and 
the  man  with  the  long-handled  wrench  will  have  a 
warning. 

The  elasticity  of  the  long  body  is  so  much  that  it  is 
like  putting  a  spring  washer  under  the  nut,  and  they  don't 
work  loose.  The  nuts  we  use  are  Tobin  bronze,  capped 
over  so  as  to  prevent  steam  from  getting  to  the  thread  or 

140 


Piston   Packing   Rings. 


leaking.  Cost !  Yes,  but  is  not  the  preventing  of  the  trou- 
ble— and  this  does  it — worth  the  cost? 

The  recesses  shown  in  the  piston  rings  in  the  drawing 
are  cast  eccentric,  giving  the  effect  of  an  eccentric  ring  and 
parallel  surfaces  in  the  grooves  in  the  piston.  The  rings 
are  limited  expansion — that  is,  the  ends  are  hooked  togeth- 
er so  as  to  prevent  their  crowding  against  the  surface  of 
the  cylinder,  but  when  the  whole  is  up  to  running  temper- 
ature they  are  a  mechanical  fit  in  the  cylinder.  They  cost, 
too,  twice  or  three  times  as  much  as  ordinary  rings,  but 
they  are  worth  it." 

For  many  years  pistons  were  made  with  rings  set  out 
with  springs  and  screws.-  In  one  respect  this  plan  was 
excellent  when  skill  was  used  in  the  adjustment.  The 
rings  had  the  same  tension  at  all  parts  of  the  cylinder  and 
the  cylinder  was  always  the  same  size  the  whole  length. 
Later  came  the  self-adjusting  steam  packing  rings,  which 
wore  the  cylinder  large  on  the  ends.  Then  came  the  vari- 
ous sectioned  packing  rings  set  out  with  springs  and  all 
self-adjusting.  Many  of  this  type  are  ingenious,  simple 
and  do  good  work.  The  snap  ring  has  pprobably  the 
most  advocates. 

The  concern  an  M.  E.  was  with  at  one  time  rented  a 
factory  and  power  to  another  concern.  The  engine  had 
steam  packing  in  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  being  in  bad 
shape  it  was  decided  to  rebore  it  and  put  in  new  packing. 
The  engineer  wanted  steam  packing  rings  and  the  M. 
E.  proposed  to  let  him  have  what  he  wanted  with  the  plea 
that  a  man  made  happy  would  take  better  care  of  the 
machine.  The  president  said  "No.  Put  in  the  same 
packing  we  have  on  our  own  engines,"  and  a  pair  of  snap 
rings  were  put  in. 

The   engineer   spent   several   evenings   taking   off  the 

141 


"Slow  Acting"   Piston   Rings. 

cylinder  head  trying  to  find  something  the  matter  with 
the  packing.  At  last  he  gave  up,  and  one  evening  wanted 
the  machinist  who  fitted  the  packing  to  come  and  look  at 
it.  He  had  the  wheel  blocked,  and  turned  on  full  head  of 
steam,  but  not  a  particle  of  steam  or  a  drop  of  water 
showed.  He  said  nothing  of  it  to  the  M.  E.,  but  was 
always  a  little  sore  because  he  did  not  get  the  steam 
packing.  The  steam  packing  would  have  cost  about  60 
per  cent,  more  and  the  cylinder  would  have  been  out  of 
shape  much  quicker  with  it. 

One  maker  of  steam  packing  claims  that  his  rings  are 
made  in  such  shape  that  the  steam  acts  on  them  slowly. 
A  cross-section  is  something  like  Fig.  66,  and  his  claim  is 
that  the  beveled  edge  prevents  the  steam  from  acting 
quickly.  As  well  claim  that  steam  acts  on  a  conical  pis- 
ton slowly. 

With  most  packings  that  are  put  in  junk  rings,  the 
junk  ring  has  to  be  removed  to  get  the  rings  out,  and 
unless  the  ports  are  well  blocked  up  there  is  trouble  with 
them,  and  getting  rings  over  the  counterbores  is  at  times 
exasperating. 

Some  builders — the  Bass  company  being  the  first — 
make  their  rings  so  that  the  packing  rings  can  be  removed 
and  replaced  without  removing  the  junk  ring.  This 
makes  the  examining  of  the  packing  and  truing  up  of  the 
piston  a  quick  and  easy  job.  It  has  been  remarked  on 
several  occasions  that  it  appears  to  be  the  settled  policy 
on  the  part  of  some  builders  to  make  their  engines  as 
unhandy  and  expensive  to  take  care  of  as  possible.  One 
of  these  things  is  a  solid  piston.  A  solid  piston  is  heavy, 
it  cannot  be  centered ;  if  the  ring  breaks,  or  if  it  is  thought 
one  is  broken,  the  rod  packing  must  be  removed,  rod 
taken  from  cross-head,  the  whole  arrangement  taken  out 

142 


Stopping  a  Pound. 


and  then  the  whole  thing  put  back.  A  job  that  with  a 
proper  piston  could  have  been  done  in  an  hour  takes  half 
a  day  to  a  day  and  lots  of  extra  help.  When  a  man  con- 
fesses he  can  build  nothing  but  a  solid  piston  it  is  a  con- 
fession that  he  has  not  the  "know  how." 

Many  engines  have  a  pound  at  the  back  end  of  the 
cylinder.  Some  engineers  claim  to  have  discovered  the 
cause,  which  is  a  pounding  piston,  and  they  want  a  large 
sum  for  pointing  out  the  remedy.  An  engineer  had  a 


Fig.  67.     Junk  ring  too  smnll. 


Fig.  68.      A  remedy  for  this. 


heavy  pound  in  the  back  end  of  a  cylinder  and  took  off 
the  head  and  removed  packing,  but  found  nothing  to 
indicate  that  there  was  any  trouble.  There  was  nothing 
out  of  the  way,  except  the  junk  ring  was  small  and  the 
piston  could  move  sideways  if  the  force  of  the  entering 
steam  should  strike  the  piston  heavier  on  one  side  than 
the  other.  Fig.  67  shows  this  in  an  exaggerated  form.  He 
made  a  new  junk  ring  with  new  snap  packing  rings,  the 
junk  ring  being  turned  the  exact  size  of  the  cylinder,  then 
set  off  the  center  so  as  to  turn  the  top  of  the  ring  off  to 

143 


High  Speed  Engines. 

allow  for  clearance.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  68.  A  ring 
turned  in  this  manner  will  fit  the  cylinder  nearly  half  of 
its  circumference  and  there  can  be  no  side  movement. 
After  this  there  was  no  more  "pounding  piston." 

The  joints  of  the  packing  rings  can  be  anywhere  in  the 
lower  portion  of  the  junk  ring  and  the  piston  will  be 
tight,  even  should  they  be  open  for  one-fourth  of  the 
circumference.  This  may  not  be  the  cause  of  a  pound- 
ing piston,  but  with  a  junk  ring  made  in  this  manner 
there  will  be  no  pounding,  also  the  packing  will  be  tight 
with  packing  joints  on  the  bottom. 

Where   High  Speed  Engines  Pay. 

There  are  many  cases  where  light  machinery,  like  fans, 
small  dynamos,  etc.,  is  operated  where  power  is  wanted 
when  the  main  engine  is  shut  down.  These  are  required 
'to  run  at  high  rotative  speed,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  a 
good  policy  to  investigate  the  small  engines  running  in  a 
case  with  the  moving  parts  continually  slushed  with  oil 
and  water. 

For  those  who  like  all  parts  in  plain  sight  where  every- 
thing can  be  examined  thoroughly  at  any  time  and  ad- 
justments easily  made,  there  are  a  number  of  high-speed 
machines  of  this  character  that  are  doing  excellent  work. 

For  light  work  at  night  it  often  pays  to  have  these 
engines  so  placed  that  they  can  be  hitched  on  at  any 
time.  For  places  that  belting  and  shafting  costs  too 
much  to  fit  up,  these  engines  are  valuable,  especially  where 
steam  is  used  about  the  mill  and  the  cost  of  piping  not 
great.  Many  a  large  engine  has  been  materially  injured 
by  running  too  light  a  load  evenings,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  economy. 

144 


Electricity  in  Place  of  Shafting. 

In  an  electric  station  an  1 8-inch  cylinder  Corliss  engine 
required  more  coal  after  12  o'clock  than  a  high-speed 
engine  doing  the  same  work.  The  latter  engine  had  a 
12-inch  cylinder  and  the  load  was  just  a  full  load  and  it 
was  doing  its  best  service. 

It  is  becoming  the  practice  to  use  electricity  and  thus 
save  the  installation  and  friction  of  shafting  and  belts. 
Large,  tight  belts  can  make  sufficient  friction  to  consume 
a  great  deal  of  coal.  This  is  the  proper  thing  to  do  when 
machines  can  be  grouped  so  that  too  small  motors  are  not 
used.  In  this  case  the  engine  is  large,  and  should  there 
be  small  loads  to  be  run  through  the  evening  it  would 
be  a  good  plan  to  use  a  small  engine  for  the  purpose  rath- 
er than  run  the  large  engine  with  the  electric  equipment. 

Turbines  have  come  to  stay,  but  just  what  can  be  ex- 
pected of  them  is  not  yet  known.  So  far,  one  can  get  as 
good  guarantees  for  economy  from  builders  of  vertical 
engines,  and  in  some  cases  horizontal  engines,  as  from 
turbine  builders. 

There  is  one  case  where  the  claim  is  made  that  the 
company  operating  the  plant  does  not  know  what  either 
system  is  using,  but  they  do  know  that  when  the  turbines 
are  in  operation  but  half  the  fuel  is  used  that  is  required 
to  operate  the  same  plant  with  high-grade  Corliss  en- 
gines. Their  Corliss  engines  should  produce  a  mechani- 
cal horse-power  with  not  to  exceed  13^  pounds  of  water 
per  hour.  This  would  make  the  turbines  running  with 
6^4  pounds.  Evidently  something  is  wrong.  The  tur- 
bine has  a  tremendous  peripheral  speed  amounting  to 
30,000  feet  per  minute. 

There  are  cases  where  the  engine  builder  makes  great 
promises  about  the  performance  of  his  engines  and  guar- 
antees great  results.  The  engine  is  sold  f.  o.  b.  factory. 

i45 


Satisfactory  Engines. 

After  the  engine  is  put  in  use  it  is  found  faulty  and  does 
not  come  up  to  the  guarantee,  and  when  the  builder  is 
appealed  to  to  make  it  good  he  falls  back  on  the  claim 
that  the  engine  was  sold  f .  o.  b.  factory,  and  after  it  leaves 
the  factory  it  is  the  customer's  machine  and  he  has  noth- 
ing further  to  do  with  it.  He  sends  a  man  to  erect  it 
and  his  work  is  inferior,  and  when  complaint  is  made 
he  claims  that  he  furnished  the  man  as  an  accommoda- 
tion; that  the  man  during  the  erection  was  working  for 
the  'customer  and  under  the  customer's  direction ;  that  the 
engine  was  f.  o.  b.  factory  and  the  customer  is  at  fault 
if  he  does  not  see  that  the  man  does  his  work  right. 

Two  cases  of  this  kind  have  come  to  my  notice, 
both  of  them  from  one  firm.  The  better  plan  is  to  insist 
that  the  engine  builder  shall  deliver  and  erect  his  own 
engine  and  be  responsible  for  his  work  and  his  men. 

Steam  pressures  are  increasing,  which  is  of  advantage 
in  many  ways  where  there  is  a  large  amount  of  power 
and  the  work  is  continuous.  Because  of  this,  there  are 
some  mill  owners  who  hear  of  the  high  pressures  and 
think  they  must  not  be  outdone,  so  put  in  engines  of  no 
more  than  500  horse-power,  that  think  they  must  use  160 
pounds  or  more  steam  pressure,  and  they  only  run  ten 
hours  per  day. 

One  case  that  came  to  my  attention  was  of  a  man 
that  put  in  a  single  24-inch  cylinder  and  arranged  to  carry 
1 60  pounds  steam  pressure,  and  put  in  piping,  heater, 
etc.,  none  too  heavy  for  100  pounds. 

The  excessively  high  steam  pressures  have  not  yet 
demonstrated  so  much  economy  as  to  warrant  the  neces- 
sary extra  weight,  piping  and  accessories  for  ordinary 
small  and  medium  powers  for  light  and  medium  work. 


146 


Hot  Boxes  and    Bearing  Metal. 

A  firm  had  a  new  engine  which,  in  common  with 
engines  of  that  time,  had  all  of  its  bearings  of  bronze. 
The  outer  journal  was  short  for  a  regular  wheel,  but  this 
being  in  a  rolling  mill,  an  extra  heavy  wheel  was  put  on 
and  put  close  to  the  outer  bearings,  and  there  was  a  hot 
journal  right  off. 

Stove  blacking — the  black  lead  of  those  days — sulphur, 
salt  pork,  etc.,  were  tried  without  avail,  and  cold  water 
was  the  only  reliable  thing  that  would  allow  work  to  con- 
tinue, and  cold  water  was  used  as  long  as  that  engine  was 
run.  The  crank-pin  boxes  were  also  bronze  and  these 
had  spells  of  heating.  After  a  trial  of  several  cooling 
mixtures,  white  lead,  thinned  to  the  consistency  of  paint 
with  lubricating  oil,  was  found  to  be  the  best,  cooling  the 
quickest  and  leaving  the  pin  smooth.  This  was  applied 
by  taking  a  small  funnel,  putting  the  forefinger  of  the  left 
hand  over  the  bottom  until  the  oil  hole  was  reached  and 
then  holding  the  funnel  with  the  right  hand.  This,  of 
course,  is  not  possible  with  high-speed  engines,  but 
there  are  a  number  of  ways  that  suggest  themselves  as 
different  conditions  arise.  There  is  a  mineral  called  bary- 
tes  that  is  used  extensively  in  the  adulteration  of  white 
lead,  and  if  this  is  used  it  will  make  trouble,  but  genu- 
ine white  lead  is  an  excellent  cure  for  hot  journals. 

Cold  water  is  a  sure  thing  if  enough  can  be  used,  but 
there  are  many  places  where  it  cannot,  as  it  would  ruin 
belts  or  machinery.  An  M.  E.  went  into  an  engine-room 
one  afternoon  and  found  them  shut  down  with  a  hot  main 
journal,  and  they  could  only  run  a  few  minutes  at  a  time. 
They  could  not  use  water  because  it  would  not  do  to  let 
it  run  into  the  wheel-pit.  He  called  for  some  white  lead 

147 


Cooling  Hot  Bearings. 

and  some  ice;  mixed  up  the  lead  and  showed  them  how 
to  apply  it,  put  the  ice  on  to  the  cap  of  the  journal  and 
built  a  fence  around  it  with  waste  that  would  absorb  near- 
ly all  of  the  water  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  melted 
ice  spread  over  the  whole  top.  The  engineer  said  if  he 
could  only  run  long  enough  to  bring  down  the  goods  they 
were  to  ship  that  day  they  would  be  satisfied.  The  M.  E. 
called  again  in  two  hours,  found  everybody  happy,  jour- 
nal cool  and  the  engineer  did  not  have  to  work  that  night. 

Bronze  boxes  are  nearly  gone  by  and  their  use  is  very 
rare,  babbit  metal  and  the  cheaper  white  metals  having 
taken  its  place.  Some  of  the  white  lining  metals  are  no 
better  than  bronze,  and  they  have  a  way  of  melting  out 
that  is  not  pleasant. 

One  journal,  14x26,  used  to  have  spells  of  heating 
without  any  apparent  cause.  After  ten  years  of  service 
it  was  thought  best  to  put  in  some  new  shells,  and  in 
order  that  they  should  be  all  right,  the  engineer  had  the 
lining  metal  made  up  and  sent  to  the  builder  who  made 
the  new  shells.  As  there  was  considerable  work  to  be 
done,  they  sent  a  man  from  the  shop  to  put  them  in.  This 
man  evidently  had  had  experience  with  new  shells  on  old 
journals  and  was  careful  to  make  all  preparations  for  hot 
work,  even  having  a  hose  laid. 

Everything  went  off  cool  and  all  right  and  the  engine- 
man  expressed  his  astonishment,  and  the  following  con- 
versation took  place: 

Engineer — But  those  shells  have  babbitt  metal. 

Engineman — We  put  in  babbitt  metal. 

Engineer — What  kind? 

Engineman — The  best  we  can  get. 

Engineer — How  much  do  you  pay? 

Engineman — Twenty-two  cents. 

148 


Crank  Pin  and  Cross  Head  Boxes. 

Engineer — They  cost  thirty  cents  without  the  labor. 
Babbitt's  receipt  called  for  copper  4  parts,  antimony  8 
parts,  and  the  best  Banca  tin  96  parts.  This  is  the  same, 
except  it  has  only  85  parts  tin  and  is  a  little  harder,  and 
you  will  notice  that  when  first  cast  it  has  a  slight  tinge 
of  yellow.  It  will  stand  hammering  and  at  the  same  time, 
when  chipped,  the  chips  will  fly  all  over  the  room. 

The  outer  journal  of  this  engine  had  a  way  of  getting 
very  hot  persistently.  Taking  off  the  cap  revealed  a  small 
line  about  1-16  of  an  inch  wide  that  was  very  bright  and 
there  was  so  much  friction  that  oil  fed  through  the  cup 
would  have  no  effect. 

The  cap  was  removed  and  a  wooden  box  with  a  lid 
made,  and  this  was  packed  with  waste,  when  a  very  little 
oil  would  run  it  all  right.  This  shaft  was  made  from 
horseshoe  scrap  and  a  piece  of  steel  caulk  might  have 
made  the  hard  spot. 

It  has  been  the  custom  for  years  to  line  the  crank-pin 
boxes  with  babbitt  and  make  the  crosshead  boxes  of 
bronze.  An  engineer  had  an  engine  with  crank-pin  7^ 
inches  and  crosshead  pin  7  inches  in  diameter. 

The  crank-pin  boxes  would  run  without  keying  up  for 
months,  but  the  crosshead  boxes  would  need  keying  twice 
per  week.  In  the  Mechanics'  Fair  at  Boston,  in  1883, 
there  was  on  exhibition  what  was  termed  "hardened  cop- 
per" that  was  claimed  to  be  superior  to  any  metal  for 
bearings.  It  was  not  "hard"  but  it  was  treated  in  some 
manner  so  that  it  would  file  and  work  with  tools  some- 
thing like  cast  iron.  The  engineer  got  some  of  this  and 
had  some  crosshead  boxes  made.  These  would  go  for  a 
longer  time  without  adjusting  than  the  crank-pin.  Evi- 
dently, the  makers  of  this  metal  could  not  make  people 
believe  that  copper  would  make  good  bearings  and  had 

149 


Bearings  that  Bind. 

to  give  up  the  business.    None  of  it  can  be  found  now. 

It  is  a  fact  that  pure  copper  is  one  of  our  best  non-at- 
trition metals. 

One  lubricant  used  in  drawing  brass  and  copper  is 
made  by  boiling  together  tallow,  hard  soap  and  water, 
putting  in  water  to  make  it  of  the  proper  consistency. 
This  is  better  than  oil  for  cutting  brass  and  copper  pipe. 

Soap  is  a  fair  lubricant  and  at  one  time  was  extensively 
used  in  packing  axles  on  locomotives  that  heated.  A  dash 
of  spirits  of  camphor  sometimes  has  a  good  effect. 

Kerosene,  when  gummy  oils  are  used,  will  clear  a  jour- 
nal, but  not  so  quickly  as  potash  or  ammonia. 

The  causes  for  hot  journals  are  many.  Of  course, 
a  tight  journal  will  heat.  A  journal  in  a  solid  box,  if  it 
gets  warm,  will  pretty  surely  get  hot,  as  it  will  expand 
faster  than  the  box ;  the  outside  of  the  box  not  being  hot 
will  not  expand  and  will  cause  the  box  to  bind.  The  only 
place  that  there  is  any  excuse  for  using  solid  boxes  is 
on  the  parallel  rods  of  a  locomotive. 

With  reciprocating  motion  a  box  too  loose  will  heat 
from  the  pounding  out  of  the  oil. 

A  bronze  box  is  cause  for  apprehension.  The  name 
"bronze"  covers  a  multitude  of  sins,  and  worse.  A  few 
are  made  of  good  material ;  many  are  simply  cheap  brass 
with  an  occasional  small  percentage  of  tin.  When  they 
get  hot  they  tear  the  journal  and  frequently  ruin  it.  A 
great  many  of  the  white  lining  metals  are  as  bad,  so  far 
as  heating  is  concerned,  as  "bronze."  They  are  made 
up  of  cheap  material,  lead  being  largely  used. 

When  a  man  offers  cheap  lining  metal  it  must  be  made 
from  cheap  ingredients.  Sometimes  the  best  lining  metal 
is  ruined  through  improper  treatment,  and  this  is  more 
liable  to  be  the  case  with  the  better  qualities  than  with 

150 


Causes  of  Heating. 


the  cheaper.  Tin  melts  at  440  degrees  Fahr.,  and  a  metal 
made  chiefly  from  tin  should  not  be  overheated.  A  good 
rule  is  that  it  is  sufficiently  hot  when  it  will  char  a  pine 
stick.  It  should  always  be  covered  with  a  flux  when 
melting  to  preserve  it  from  oxidation.  Charcoal  is  often 
used  for  this  purpose. 

Heating  may  be  caused  by  all  parts  not  being  lubri- 
cated, there  being  no  oil  channels  to  spread  the  oil ;  by 
hard  metals  made  up  in  the  shaft,  like  pieces  of  steel,  or 
cast  iron,  or  cinder,  or  any  material  that  does  not  wear 
smoothly  and  evenly;  by  the  casting  not  being  properly 
cleaned  and  sand  working  out  under  the  lining  metal ;  by 
the  edges  of  the  lining  metal  not  having  been  trimmed  off 
and  the  thin  edges  cracking  off;  by  the  work  not  being 
in  line,  or  level  and  the  load  not  distributed  evenly;  by 
the  journal  not  being  of  sufficient  size,  there  being  more 
than  150  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch.  In  some 
cases  dirt  may  get  in,  and  in  many  cases  improper  lubri- 
cants are  used.  Too  tight  a  belt  makes  an  excess  of 
friction. 


151 


Corliss  Engines, 


T    T    T 

This  chapter  will  be  to  a  large  extent  personal.  For 
a  number  of  years  I  had  tried  to  get  some  one  interested  in 
putting  on  an  extra  eccentric  but  was  unable  to  do  so,  and 
all  Corliss  engine  builders  of  the  time  claimed  that  it  was 
not  necessary  and  would  make  a  needless  combination  and 
expense. 

In  1872  I  had  added  to  my  equipment  a  Corliss  en- 
gine, 28  x  60,  running  at  52  revolutions.  To  this  engine 
was  attached  a  syphon  condenser.  At  that  time  indicators 
were  scarce,  but  I  had  a  Richards.  I  was  unable  to  get 
a  card  that  suited  me.  If  the  attempt  was  made  to  get  any 
compression  the  exhaust  was  late  and  would  not  show 
full  vacuum  before  half  stroke.  I  tried  compression  by 
giving  the  eccentric  a  large  advance  and  by  lengthening 
the  exhaust  connections.  By  doing  this  it  was  necessary 
to  lengthen  the  steam  connections.  This  made  about 
three-eighths  stroke  the  latest  possible  cut-off.  As  the  en- 
gine was  doing  rolling  mill  work,  some  of  the  time  it 
meant  full  stroke.  The  slowness  of  the  exhaust  also 
troubled  me.  It  was  learned  after  repeated  trials  that 
getting  compression  at  the  expense  of  release  meant  more 
coal  burned,  while  the  earlier  the  release,  the  less  coal 

152 


Corliss   Indicator  Diagrams. 

was  required.  It  finally  settled  down  to  the  diagram 
shown  in  Fig.  69,  as  the  best  that  could  be  done  and  still 
have  the  engine  run  fairly  quiet.  I  began  to  talk  two  ec- 
centrics for  Corliss  engines,  but  no  one  would  listen  to 
me,  all  interested  parties  claiming  the  extra  one  was  not 
needed.  I  tried  to  induce  those  having  new  engines  built 
to  insist  on  it,  but  all  were  easily  talked  out  of  it. 

In  1883  I  was  in  a  position  to  say  that  the  engine 
should  be  changed  that  way.  In  conversation  one  day 
with  the  superintendent  of  the  engine  works,  he  was  told 
there  was  going  to  be  another  eccentric.  Said  the  super- 
intendent, "We  can  build  it  for  you,"  and  it  was  arranged 


Fig.    69.      Single   eccentric  diagram. 

that  I  should  send  the  dimensions  and  a  sketch  of  what 
was  wanted  and  the  engine  builder  would  make  it.  It  was 
made  in  1884. 

For  some  reason  everyone  had  the  idea  that  the  of- 
fice of  a  second  eccentric  was  to  give  freedom  to  setting 
the  exhaust  valves  and  the  principal  thing  was  to  get  com- 
pression. I  wanted  to  get  early  release  and  have  the 
vacuum  have  effect  the  full  length  of  the  stroke;  also  a 
longer  range  of  cutting-off. 

With  a  Corliss  engine  it  is  evident  that  the  valve  must 
release  at  or  before  the  full  throw  of  the  eccentric,  so  the 
steam  eccentric  was  set  at  right  angles  to  the  crank,  which 
would  insure  a  range  of  cut-off  up  to  half  stroke.  Both 

153 


Wristplates. 

eccentrics  were  set  at  right  angles  to  the  crank,  both 
wrist  plates  vertical,  the  steam  valves  with  1-16  inch  lead 
and  the  exhaust  with  %  inch  lead.  The  exhaust  eccen- 
tric was  then  turned  to  about  30  degrees  angular  advance 
of  the  steam  eccentric. 

I  have  always  had  the  idea  that  one  should  never 
depart   from   the  builder's  design   of  an   engine   if  pos- 


Fig.    70.      Old  Corliss  Wristplate. 


sible;  that  there  should  be  no  special  parts,  so  that  re- 
pairs could  be  quickly  and  cheaply  made.  The  wrist 
plate  originally  was  like  Fig.  70.  The  new  wrist  plates 
were  made  one-half  as  thick,  with  the  outline  shown  by 
dotted  lines,  and  fitted  to  the  same  stud.  The  new  rocker 
arm  was  the  same  as  its  mate,  and  all  valve  connections. 

i54 


More  Corliss  Cards. 


Fig.    71.      Diagram  from  two  eccentrics. 

were  the  same.  After  the  new  arrangement  was  started 
a  diagram  was  like  Fig.  71.  It  will  be  noticed  on  this 
that  the  cut-off  is  round.  I  wrote  the  builder,  sending 
some  cards,  and  inquired  if  there  was  any  remedy.  The 
builder  suggested  that  the  studs  operating  the  steam 
valves  be  set  I  inch  nearer  the  circumference  of  the  wrist 
plate,  which  would  give  the  valve  more  and  quicker 
travel.  This  was  done,  and  the  precaution  was  taken 
to  work  the  wrist  full  throw  both  ways  to  see  that  every- 
thing was  clear,  but  when  the  steam  was  turned  on  and 
the  engine  was  partly  up  to  speed,  the  dash-pot  rod  pulled 
just  out  of  the  guide,  and  the  result  was  a  broken  wrist 
plate.  As  everything  was  uniform  with  the  old,  the  old 
single  wrist  plate  was  put  back  and  attached  to  the  steam 
eccentric  set  at  right  angles  to  the  crank,  and  Fig.  72 
was  the  result. 


Fig.    72.      Another  card  from  one  eccentric. 

155 


Two  Eccentric  Corliss  Engines. 

The  round  cut-off  was  not  overcome  by  the  longer 
and  quicker  travel  to  the  valve,  and  I  have  observed 
since  that,  with  a  condensing-  engine,  early  release  and 
compression,  the  cut-off  will  be  round. 

There  was  another  thing  observed,  and  that  was  that 
the  range  during  which  the  engine  could  cut  off  was  ex- 
tended to  three-quarters  stroke.  At  first  it  did  not  seem 
possible,  but  it  was  reasoned  that  the  release  taking  place 
at  half  stroke,  and  the  piston  being  at  its  highest  speed, 
it  must  travel  the  extra  quarter  stroke  while  the  valve 
was  closing. 

The  first  engine  to  which  it  was  applied  was  speeded 
up  two  revolutions  by  the  change,  owing  to  the  governor 
in  its  old  position  having  a  longer  cut-off.  It  has  largely 
been  the  custom  on  Corliss  engines  to  build  the  governor 
with  a  travel  of  4  inches.  This  was  cut  down  to  2^2. 

With  two  eccentrics  set  in  the  manner  described  so 
that  steam  can  follow  three-quarter  stroke,  and  the  gov- 
ernor travel  reduced  to  2^  inches,  a  Corliss  engine  is  a 
powerful  machine  and  the  regulation  is  very  close. 

The  wrist  plates  should  be  as  light  and  simple  as 
possible.  A  few  builders  make  small  balance  wheels  for 
this  purpose.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  wrist-plate 
must  be  stopped  and  started  twice  every  revolution,  and, 
when  made  heavy,  brings  a  severe  strain  on  the  whole 
gearing  from  wrist  plate  to  eccentric,  and  means  hot 
eccentrics,  shaky  rods  and  a  pound  in  every  joint. 

Some  wrist  plates  are  built  like  Fig.  73,  evidently 
with  the  idea  that  they  can  be  finished  all  over  in  the 
lathe. 

Wrist  plates  like  this  are  very  hard  to  stop  and  start 
the  other  way,  and  with  this  type  there  will  always  be 
hot  eccentrics.  It  is  not  necessary  that  wrist  plates  should 

156 


Setting  Corliss  Valves. 

be  finished  and  many  are  made  that  are  left  plain  castings. 

On  the  end  of  valves,  on  the  opposite  side  of  cylinder 
from  wrist  plates,  is  a  mark  showing  the  edge  of  the 
valve,  and  below  on  the  seat  are  marks  showing  port 
openings.  Fig.  74  shows  these  marks  and  my  method  of 
setting  the  wrist  plates  and  valves  before  splining  the 
valve  stems  for  the  little  jim  cranks. 

The  usual  method  for  setting  Corliss  valves  with  one 
eccentric,  with  engine  on  the  center,  is  to  give  from  1-32 
to  1-16  inch  lead  for  cylinders  from  12  to  36  inches. 
With  wrist  plate  on  center,  steam  lap  from  3-16  to  ^ 
inch  and  exhaust  lap  from  1-32  to  y%  inch.  According  to 


Fig.    73.      Round  wristplate. 

my  plan  with  compound  engines,  the  steam  lead  on  the 
low-pressuure  cylinder  should  be  from  ^g  to  ^  inch, 
depending  on  size  of  cylinder. 

With  cylinders  without  steam  jackets,  the  corner  of 
steam  line  on  indicator  card  should  be  a  little  rounding. 
This  is  caused  by  initial  condensation.  To  bring  this 

157 


Marks  for  Valve  Setting. 


corner  up  square  means  excessive  lead,  more  coal  and 
more  oil.  With  a  steam  jacket,  this  corner  will  be 
brought  up  square. 

Fig.  75  shows  plan  of  wrist  plates  and  my  way  of 
putting  in  the  starting  bars.  By  this  method  both  bars 
can  be  taken  in  one  hand  and  the  engine  handled  the 
same  as  with  a  single  wrist  plate.  Most  builders  put  in 
round  rods,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  impossible 
to  handle  the  engine  by  hand. 


O 


Fig.    74.      Valve  setting  marks. 

These  bars  are  struck  out  in  all  sorts  of  directions 
but  the  right  one.  They  are  usually  laid  out  by  drafts- 
men or  someone  having  no  practical  knowledge  of 
engineering. 

When  a  Corliss  engine,  or  any  other  four-valve  en- 

158 


When  Valves  Make  Trouble. 


Fig.    75.      Both  bars  handled  together. 

gine  except  piston  valves,  is  running  light  so  that  the 
steam  expands  below  the  atmosphere  on  non-condensing 
vsingle  engines,  the  exhaust  valves  will  lift  and  rattle. 
This  is  particularly  noticeable  when  steam  is  shut  off. 
Because  of  this,  a  very  few  engine  builders  have  got  into 
the  practice  of  making  the  ends  of  the  valves  solid  to  pre- 
vent them  lifting.  Valves  made  in  this  manner  are  liable 
to  give  trouble  when  starting  the  engine.  When  a  valve 
which  is  solid  on  the  end,  or  a  piston-  valve,  or  any  valve 
that  fits  tight  to  case,  has  steam  admitted,  the  valve  will 
become  heated  before  the  surrounding  case  and  will  stick 
and  cause  something  to  break.  This  has  caused  lots  of 
single  pump  mechanisms  to  break,  especially  when  new. 
Where  there  are  valves  of  this  kind,  care  should  be  taken 
to  heat  everything  thoroughly  before  attempting  to  start. 


Fig.    76.      Not  a  good  plan. 
159 


How  to  Place  an  Engine  on  Centre. 

- 

Another  bad  practice  some  builders  have  gotten  into 
is  to  construct  the  valve  mechanism  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  bring  the  jim  cranks  very  nearly  in  the  centef-at  full 
throw  of  wrist  plate — nearly  as  bad  as  Fig.  76.  A  very 
little  shortening  up  on  the  connections  means  a  wreck. 

To  place  engine  on  exact  center,  turn  the  crank  just 
past  the  center  and  mark  the  cross-head  and  guide,  as  at 
A,  Fig.  77.  Also  measure  from  the  floor  to  side  of  wheel 
rim,  say  one  foot,  or  two  feet,  and  make  a  mark  upon 
the  wheel,  as  at  B,  then  turn  the  crank  the  other  way 
past  the  center  to  bring  the  mark  on  crosshead  and  guide 
and  with  the  same  distance  from  the  floor  as  before  make 
another  mark  on  the  wheel,  as  at  C.  Now  make  a  per- 
manent mark  D  on  the  wheel  just  half  way  between  the 
two  marks,  and  this  mark,  brought  to  same  distance  from 
the  floor,  puts  the  engine  exactly  on  the  center,  and  the 
mark  being  permanent  can  be  used  at  any  future  time. 
Mark  for  the  other  center  in  the  same  manner. 

Should  it  become  necessary  to  alter  the  steam  con- 
nections between  wrist  plate  and  jim  crank,  be  careful 
to  see  that  the  dash-pot  rod  is  also  adjusted  properly,  so 
that  it  will  not  be  pushed  to  the  bottom  or  lifted  so  high 
it  will  not  hook  on. 

Next  give  attention  to  the  reach  rods  from  governor, 
to  see  that  the  valve  cuts  off  properly  and  that  the  stop 
motion  has  not  been  put  out  of  service. 

An  engineer  had  occasion  to  examine  five  engineers 
for  a  chief  engineer's  position  for  an  8,000  horse-power 
station,  and  when  the  question  was  asked,  "When  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  steam  connections,  what  changes 
should  be  looked  after  in  the  governor?"  not  one  of  them 
could  think  of  a  thing,  although,  if  a  governor  belt  should 
break,  it  means  a  runaway. 

161 


An  Answer  to  Criticism. 

Cards  were  sent  to  the  builder,  and  the  superin- 
tendent showed  them  to  the  head  draftsman,  who  in- 
quired why  they  had  not  done  it  before.  "Oh,"  said  the 
superintendent,  "Crane  has  been  after  us  to  build  this 
for  the  last  five  years."  Being  asked  why  he  had  not 
done  it  he  replied,  "Because  we  don't  want  outsiders  to 
come  here  and  show  us  how  to  build  engines." 

The  new  arrangement  cost  $263.  The  amount  of 
coal  burned  two  months  before  it  was  applied  and  for 
two  months  afterward  showed  a  saving  in  fuel  of  $500 
per  year. 

This  engine  was  not  built  at  the  Corliss  works,  but 
at  the  time  there  was  at  this  place  a  30  x  60  engine  built 
at  the  Corliss  shop,  and  the  Corliss  company  was  asked 
for  a  price  for  putting  on  an  extra  eccentric,  and  the 
reply  was,  "We  will  not  do  it  for  any  price.  We  do  not 
want  our  engines  run  that  way." 

The  extra  eccentric  went  on,  nevertheless,  and  a  few 
years  afterward  I  went  to  the  Corliss  works  and  had  a 
compound  built  just  as  I  wanted  it — two  eccentrics 
and  all. 

After  about  1892  any  one  could  get  two  eccentrics 
who  asked  for  them,  and  by  1897  most  Corliss  builders 
claimed  they  had  built  them  for  years. 

I  have  been  amused  at  seeing  Corliss  engines  fitted 
with  two  eccentrics  and  both  wrist  plates  working  in  uni- 
son. There  are  many  engines  running  this  way  that 
would  do  just  as  good  service  with  one  plate. 

Criticism  has  been  made  of  my  method  of  setting 
the  valves.  With  1-16  inch  lead  on  the  steam  valves  and 
the  large  lead  on  the  exhaust,  it  is  reasoned  that  for  a 
short  time  steam  will  blow  through  when  the  engine  is 
on  the  center,  but  this  does  not  occur  after  the  engine  is 
up  to  speed  and  the  cut-off  in  operation. 

162 


Selecting  an   Engine. 

With  some  types  of  Corliss  exhaust  valves  there  will 
be  pounding  caused  by  the  valve  not  having  the  springs 
put  in  correctly  and  the  valve  dropping  a  little  during  the 
exhaust  to  be  forced  against  the  seat  suddenly  by  the 
entering  steam. 

Most  automatic  cut-off  engines  have  a  rattling  in  the 
exhaust  valves  when  the  engine  is  working  light  and 
running  non-condensing  caused  by  the  steam  in  the  cyl- 
inder expanding  below  the  atmosphere,  thus  lifting  the 
exhaust  valves  from  their  seats.  With  junk  ring  fitting 
the  entire  lower  half  of  cylinder  there  are  those  who  will 
contend  that  this  will  add  to  the  friction,  arguing  that 
the  pressure  on  top  of  the  ring  produces  a  pressure  on 
every  square  inch  of  bottom. 

This  question  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  slide  valve, 
whether  the  pressure  is  over  the  total  face  or  over  the 
ports  only.  No  extra  coal  was  burned  with  this  form 
of  junk  ring. 

When  selecting  an  engine,  some  people  are  governed 
more  by  scruples  than  by  conditions.  There  are  many 
who  are  strictly  Corliss  men  and  can  listen  to  nothing 
but  a  Corliss  engine  under  any  and  all  circumstances 
where  there  is  sufficient  power  to  be  used  that  requires 
even  the  smallest  sizes  of  this  engine.  There  are  others 
who  will  listen  to  nothing  but  high  speed  and  direct  con- 
necting to  individual  shafts  or  to  generators.  When  short 
stroke  and  high  rotative  speeds  came  out  the  claim  was 
made  that  they  used  steam  faster,  and  as  a  result  hotter; 
there  would  be  less  condensation;  the  engine  could  be 
directly  coupled  to  the  engine  shaft,  thus  doing  away 
with  a  big  wheel,  jack  shaft  and  belts  and  much  power 
could  be  saved  in  that  way. 

One  large  manufacturing  company  put  in  two  of  these 

163 


What  Engine  to   Buy. 

engines,  each  coupled  to  a  main  line  of  shafting.  They 
advertised  extensively  their  plans  and  gave  glowing  ac- 
counts of  the  results  after  starting.  After  a  time  they 
began  to  count  the  cost,  and  it  did  not  look  so  flattering. 
It  would  not  do  to  make  the  change  to  a  Corliss  engine 
right  away,  in  view  of  all  they  had  said,  so  they  kept  very 
quiet  for  a  long  time  and  then  put  in  a  Corliss.  For  their 
work  they  did  a  wise  thing  finally,  and  should  have  done 
it  in  the  first  place.  Even  with  this  in  view  there  are 
many  cases  where  a  Corliss  is  prohibitive. 

A  person  just  starting  a  small  business  has  sufficient 
money  to  buy  a  high-speed  engine  and  small  building  to 
put  it  in.  His  business  pays  so  that  it  is  enlarged,  and 
he  finally  gets  a  Corliss.  He  did  not  have  sufficient  capi- 
tal in  the  first  place  to  pay  for  the  Corliss,  with  the  large 
building  required  for  the  engine,  belt,  pulleys,  etc.  There 
are  many  cases  in  large,  well-established  concerns  that 
have  use  for  power,  where  they'  have  room  for  a  high- 
speed engine  and  where  the  extra  amount  of  coal  used 
would  not  warrant  the  extensive  changes  in  the  buildings 
and  grounds  necessary  for  the  installing  of  a  Corliss.  In 
many  new  buildings  the  same  conditions  exist.  Where  a 
small  portion  of  the  works  run  overtime  a  high-speed  en- 
gine is  a  necessity,  and,  while  using  more  coal  per  horse- 
power when  the  main  engine  is  loaded,  will  drive  the 
small  amount  of  work  required  with  less  coal  than  the 
large  engine  would  require. 

Many  business  concerns  have  got  a  good  start  with  a 
high-speed  engine  that  could  not  have  made  a  beginning 
had  they  been  obliged  to  put  in  its  bigger  brother  at  the 
start. 

It  is  more  necessary,  however,  to  have  the  high-speed 
engine  loaded  to  about  its  capacity  than  for  a  Corliss.  A 

164 


Power  of  an  Engine. 

Corliss  engine  changes  neither  its  lead  nor  compression 
with  change  of  load.  While  doing  work  it  has  the  resist- 
ance on  the  exhaust  side  to  overcome,  and  this>esistance 
will  be  the  same  under  a  light  as  under  a  heavy  load. 
With  a  non-condensing  engine  it  would  appear  something 
like  this: 

Assuming  an  engine  to  have  160  square  inches  area  and 
500  feet  piston  speed  per  minute,  it  will  give  80  horse- 
power with  33  pounds  mean  effective  pressure.  An  en- 
gine with  the  same  mean  effective  pressure  will  require 
50  square  inches  of  piston  and  the  same  piston  speed  to  do 
25  horse-power.  Adding  back  pressure  to  the  latter  case, 

49X50X500 

we  have  49  pounds  total  pressure,  and  =34 

33000 
horse-power. 

Should  the  larger  engine  be  only  loaded  to  25  horse- 
power it  would  require  but   10  pounds  mean   effective 
pressure,  and  adding  the  16  pounds  back  pressure  we  have 
26X160X500 

-=63  H.  P., 
33000 

showing  that  the  small  engine  to  overcome  all  resistance 
would  require  coal  for  34  horse-power,  while  the  larger 
engine  doing  the  same  work  would  require  coal  for  63 
horse-power. 

Should  a  condenser  be  used  these  results  would  be 
materially  changed,  but  there  would  still  be  the  greater 
amount  of  condensation  in  the  larger  cylinder. 

When  we  have  a  high-speed  engine  with  single  valve 
and  shaft  governor  we  have  the  above  exaggerated  by  the 
compression.  When  a  shaft  governor  is  used,  the  com- 
pression is  increased  with  every  reduction  in  the  point  of 
cutting  off,  so  that  with  light  load  the  piston  not  only 

165 


Highest  Possible  Economy. 

has  to  displace  the  resistance  that  falls  to  the  lot  of  the 
four-valve  engine,  but  from  half  stroke  must  push  this 
resistance  up  to  nearly  boiler  pressure  in  compression. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  highest  economy  that  is  pos- 
sible for  an  engine  to  reach  is  I  horse-power  with  I  pound 
of  coal.  The  engine  that  requires  or  that  receives  high 
compression  will  not  be  the  one  to  attain  it. 


166 


Valves. 


Among  the  more  prominent  valves  formerly  used 
were  the  D  slide  valve  and  the  single  poppet  valve.  After 
pressures  were  increased  the  latter  gave  way  to  the  double 
poppet  shown  in  Fig.  78.  This  is  balanced  valve  except 


Fig.  78.     Double  poppet  valve. 

one  end  must  be  made  sufficiently  small  to  pass  entire 
through  the  port  of  the  other. 

This  is  a  difficult  valve  to  make  tight.  In  the  first 
place,  the  seat  frames  are  of  iron  and  the  valves  brass  and 
the  expansion  is  different,  and  this  difference  increases 

167 


Slide  Valves. 

with  the  increase  of  pressure.  In  the  second  place,  these 
valves  must  be  ground  to  their  seats  when  cold.  It  is 
rare  that  the  same  amount  of  material  will  be  put  on  each 
seat.  A  single  poppet  valve  can  be  made  tight,  but  it 
would  require  heavy  machinery  to  open  it. 

The  slide  valve,  Fig.  79,  can  be  made  tight,  and  if 
made  so  that  the  valve  will  always  wipe  clear  over  the 
seat  will  remain  tight  for  years.  Some  of  these  valves 
and  ports  are  very  crudely  designed. 

At  one  time  lead  was  supposed  to  be  necessary  to 


Fig.  79.    A  typical  slide  valve. 

keep  an  engine  from  pounding.  After  the  advent  of  the 
high-speed  engine,  compression  was  deemed  the  thing. 
With  some  builds  of  engines,  both  are  thought  necessary 
by  the  builders  with  the  result  that  we  have  some  pretty 
poor  results,  owing  to  the  design  of  the  valve.  Not  very 
intelligent  work  can  be  done  in  valve  setting  without  an 
indicator,  but  either  with  or  without  an  indicator  a  very 
clear  idea  can  be  got  by  taking  out  the  valve.  Take  two 
parallel  strips  of  pine  and  on  one  mark  the  dimensions  of 
the  valve  and  opening  for  the  exhaust ;  on  the  other,  the 
seat  with  ports,  and  put  them  together  as  shown  in  Fig.  80. 
Then  find  the  travel  of  the  valve  and  move  the  top  stick 

168 


Laying  Out  a  Valve. 

over  the  bottom  corresponding  with  the  valve  travel.  The 
lead,  both  steam  and  exhaust,  can  be  plainly  seen  as  well 
as  all  the  movements  of  the  valve.  Builders  who  have  the 
idea  that  imperfections  in  the  build  and  alignment  of  the 
engine  resulting  in  a  noisy  engine  can  be  overcome  by 
compression,  are  apt  to  put  an  inside  lap  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  portion  at  A,  Fig.  79.  This,  with  a  fair  clearance, 
will  make  excessive  compression  and  a  late  exhaust,  both 
very  expensive.  An  indicator  card  will  tell  how  much  of 
this  should  be  taken  out. 

Lead  will  cause  an  engine  to  pound.     Steam  pressure 


Fig.  80.    Wooden  valve  for  experimenting. 

admitted  to  the  cylinder  raises  the  pressure  suddenly  and 
takes  up  the  lost  motion  too  quickly.  An  engine  properly 
built,  and  not  run  at  too  high  a  rotative  speed,  will  run 
smoothly  with  a  moderate  amount  of  compression.  To 
attempt  to  get  smooth  running  with  an  extra  amount  of 
compression  or  of  lead  means  more  oil,  more  coal  and 
more  repairs. 

The  longer  the  ports  the  more  lead  is  required,  as  it 
takes  time  fcr  steam  to  move.  With  small-sized  engines 
about  1-16  of  an  inch  lead  for  steam  and  %  for  exhaust 
is  a  fair  guess.  When  setting  an  eccentric  a  rule  that 
can  be  easily  remembered  is  :  It  should  be  set  far  enough 
ahead  of  a  right  angle  to  the  crank  to  allow  for  the  lap 
and  lead  of  the  valve.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to  run 

169 


Setting  the  Eccentrics. 

the  engine  the  other  way  this  rule  should  not  be  forgotten. 
The  eccentric  would  be  turned  either  greater  or  less  than 
half  way,  as  indicated  by  the  points  on  the  shaft  of  Fig. 
81. 

An  engineer  was  at  one  time  called  upon  to  look  at 
the  governor  of  a  small  engine.  The  owner  said  that  the 
engine  had  run  all  right  until  of  late,  when  he  could  not 
get  speed.  The  governor  was  gone  over  carefully  and 


Fig.  81.     Setting  eccentric  to  reverse  engine. 

nothing  was  found  wrong.  The  owner  was  asked  if  any- 
thing had  been  done  to  the  engine,  and  received  a  reply 
that  there  had  not. 

The  governor  pulley  was  taken  off,  so  as  to  get  at  the 
eccentric,  and  while  looking  this  over  the  owner  volun- 
teered the  information  that  he  had  moved  the  engine  from 
an  old  location,  had  had  a  piper  who  wrote  "M.  E."  after 
his  name  to  do  the  changing,  piping,  etc.,  and  the  piper 
had  an  engineer  come  to  set  the  eccentric.  "Yes,"  said 
the  engineer,  who  by  this  time  had  the  steam-chest  cover 

170 


The  Gridiron  Valve. 

off,  "and  he  turned  the  eccentric  just  half-way  around." 
The  eccentric  was  then  set,  and,  by  the  way,  there  were 
marks  on  the  shaft  to  set  it  to  run  the  engine  either  way, 
and  the  governor  gave  no  more  trouble.  Turning  the 
eccentric  half-way  had  delayed  the  admission  of  steam 
about  one-third  of  the  stroke ;  also  delayed  the  exhaust. 

There  are  many  modifications  of  the  slide  valve.  In 
some  cases  there  are  ports  through  the  valve  and  a  loose 
valve  riding  on  top  for  a  cut-off.  In  some  cases  there 
are  two  or  more  steam  ports  and  a  corresponding  number 
of  ports  through  the  valve,  making  what  is  termed  a 
"gridiron"  valve.  As  you  add  a  port  you  of  course  add 
to  the  surface  exposed  to  the  steam  and  add  to  the  skin 
friction,  so  that  for  the  same  area  there  will  not  be  the 
same  amount  of  steam  passing  through  at  the  same  time. 
Should  you  try  to  lessen  this  and  make  the  valve  thin,  if  a 
large  one,  it  will  warp  under  heat  ana  pressure.  Some 
builders  try  to  overcome  this  by  facing  off  the  seat  and 
valve  when  hot. 

A  man  about  to  buy  an  engine  was  solicited  to  buy 
an  engine  with  a  gridiron  valve.  While  employing  an 
engineer  he  took  to  investigating  the  subject  personally. 
He  paid  four  visits  to  a  place  where  they  had  a  very  large 
engine  with  this  type  of  valve,  and  on  three  of  his  visits 
they  were  facing  off  the  valves. 

This  springing  of  the  valve  occurs  only  in  the  larger 
sizes.  As  ports  are  added,  the  travel  of  the  valve  is 
reduced  so  that  the  gridiron  valve  becomes  a  neat  and  a 
necessary  design  for  a  releasing  valve  under  moderately 
high  speeds.  There  are  a  number  of  nicely  designed  bal- 
anced slide  valves  which  have  the  good  quality  of  remain- 
ing tight  for  a  long  time  and  requiring  much  less  power 
than  the  D  valve. 

171 


High  Speed  Engines. 

The  poppet  valve  is  very  little  used  in  mill,  factory 
or  electric  work.  Where  met  with  they  are  operated  by 
cams.  To  set  the  valves,  the  governor  is  raised  to  its 
highest  position  and  blocked.  The  cams  are  brought 
around  to  the  valve  stems;  if  more  cams  than  one,  be 
sure  and  get  the  right  cam  to  the  right  stem.  Set  the 
valve  stem  at  the  proper  length  so  that  as  the  cam  passes 
it,  it  will  touch  but  not  open  the  valve.  Then  let  the  gov- 
ernor down,  place  the  engine  on  the  center  and  bring  the 
cam  into  position  to  open  the  valve  for  the  lead  required. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  a  small  amount  of  com- 
pression necessary  for  smooth  running  of  a  well-built, 
moderate-speed  engine.  When  it  comes  to  a  high-speed 
engine,  these  calculations  are  all  upset.  A  high-speed 
engine  requires  nice  design,  nice  workmanship  and  perfec- 
tion in  balancing.  With  a  slow  or  moderate-speed  engine, 
the  pressure  on  the  pin  and  main  journal  will  be  direct,  as 
the  push  or  pull  comes  from  the  piston.  On  a  high-speed 
engine,  the  weight  of  the  working  parts  and  relative  speed 
may  be  so  great  as  to  change  the  thrust  on  the  opposite 
side.  This  tendency  is  increased  with  the  increase  of  the 
weight  of  the  working  parts  and  also  with  light  loads.  It 
also  increases  as  the  square  of  the  number  of  revolutions. 
With  a  piston  valve  in  engine  or  pump,  one  should  be 
careful  when  starting  up  cold  if  the  valve  is  nearly  new, 
or  if  it  has  been  recently  adjusted,  as  the  valve,  when 
steam  is  admitted,  will  heat  up  much  faster  than  the  steam 
chest  and  will  expand  so  as  to  be  tight  and  liable  to  break 
something. 

The  valves  for  engines  therefore  are :  the  D  slide  valve, 
with  its  modification,  the  gridiron  valve;  the  poppet 
valve,  the  piston  valve,  shown  in  Fig.  43 ;  the  balanced 
slide  valve,  shown  in  Fig.  82,  and  the  Corliss  valve. 

172 


Balanced  Valves. 

"Imitation  is  the  sincerest  flattery,"  therefore  the  valve 
most  imitated  is  that  most  desired  by  the  public.  The 
slide,  because  of  the  size  necessary,  is  limited  to  small  and 
medium  sized  engines  where  high-pressure  steam  is  used. 
It  is  possible  to  use  it  on  the  low-pressure  cylinders  of 
compound  engines  where 'the  heat  and  pressure  are  not 
great. 

The  poppet  valve  has  largely  gone  out  of  use,  but,  like 
baggy  trousers,  may  occasionally  come  in  fashion. 

The  piston  valve,  because  of  its  small  friction,  simplic- 
ity and  cheapness,  is  very  attractive  and  has  considerable 
demand.  Even  those  that  own  up  to  its  liability  to  leak 


Fig.  82.     Balanced  slide  valve. 

will  use  it  on  high-pressure  cylinders  of  compound  en- 
gines, and  by  using  a  tight  valve  on  the  low-pressure  cyl- 
inder get,  in  many  cases,  very  good  results. 

Steam  will  blow  through  stronger  into  a  vacuum  than 
into  the  atmosphere.  George  was  trying  to  reduce  the 
coal  bill  at  an  electric  station  where  they  ran  the  day  load 
with  a  single  cylinder,  piston  valve  engine.  He  connected 
the  exhaust  to  the  condenser,  and  immediately  the  coal 
account  increased.  He  had  a  new  valve  and  complete  new 
chest  put  on,  and,  while  there  was  some  improvement,  it 
still  required  more  coal  with  the  condenser.  When  ex- 
hausting into  the  condenser  the  steam  could  be  plainly 
heard  rushing  by  the  valve. 

173 


Runaway  Engines. 

The  balanced  slide  valve  requires  skill  and  time  to 
make  a  tight  fit,  but  can  be  made  tight  and  durable.  With 
from  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  pressure  to  hold  the  valve 
in  place  it  is  a  neat  arrangement  and  vies  with  piston 
valve  in  attractiveness  with  the  advantage  of  keeping 
tight.  They  are  easily  handled  by  a  shaft  governor  and 
are  largely  used  in  medium  and  high-speed  engines,  and 
have  a  large  sale.  Wlien  an  engine  with  shaft  governor 
is  attached  to  a  condenser  it  should  be  carefully  watched 
when  there  is  no  load.  A  shaft  governor  is  supposed  to 
govern  the  admission  of  steam  from  no  steam  admitted 
up  to  three-quarter  stroke.  With  a  single  valve,  with 
lead,  compression,  exhaust  and  the  variable  cut-off  all  to 
look  out  for,  requires  nice  calculation,  and  in  many  cases 
the  governor  has  not  sufficient  range  to  entirely  prevent 
the  admission  of  steam  with  no  load,  and  with  a  vacuum 
the  chances  are  in  favor  of  a  runaway  engine.  An  M.  E. 
attached  a  condenser  to  an  engine  with  a  shaft  gover- 
nor, and,  knowing  what  he  had  to  expect,  explained  to  the 
engineer  the  probability  of  excessive  speed  at  midnight, 
when  the  street  lights  were  thrown  off,  and  cautioned  him 
to  jump  for  his  throttle  as  soon  as  he  threw  the  switch. 
The  M.  E.  stood  close  by  the  engine  so  as  to  be  sure  to 
prevent  trouble.  He,  however,  wanted  the  engineer  to 
do  the  work  and  see  what  he  had  to  deal  with.  He  had  to 
close  down  to  save  the  engine  and  then  let  the  engineer 
try  and  regulate  it.  The  patrons  that  were  using  the 
lights  at  that  time  must  have  wondered  a  little. 

He  finally  took  hold  of  the  throttle,  closed  it  down  and 
then  turned  it  slowly  up  to  the  point  where  the  lights  were 
all  right  and  then  put  a  mark  on  top  of  wheel  of  valve, 
He  then  threw  on  the  street  lights  and  opened  the  throttle, 
counting  the  number  of  turns.  The  switch  was  then 

174 


A  Tandem  Compound. 

thrown  out,  the  valve  closed  ^that  number  of  turns  and, 
leaving  the  wheel  with  mark  on  top,  brought  the  speed 
down,  or  rather  regulated  the  amount  of  steam  necessary 
for  the  proper  speed,  so  that  the  governor  could  handle 
it  without  the  lights  fluctuating.  This  would  not  do  for  a 
railroad  load. 

An  M.  E.  had  a  case  with  a  tandem  compound  engine, 
piston  valves,  shaft  governor,  that  was  not  safe  with  a 
condenser,  and  the  builders  had  a  man  at  work  a  month 
before  he  had  the  valves  and  governor  so  that  it  would 
control  the  engine  with  light  load  with  a  condenser.  The 
builder  sent  in  a  bill  for  $600,  and  insisted  on  its  being 
paid  or  would  bring  suit.  To  avoid  a  law-suit  the  M.  E. 
advised  the  payment  of  the  bill  and  that  not  another  dol- 
lar's worth  of  goods  be  ordered  from  the  builders. 

So  far  as  the  Corliss  valve  is  concerned,  there  are  many 
that  do  not  like  to  admit  they  are  imitators  and  claim  to 
have  something  just  as  good  or  better.  The  horse-power 
of  the  other  types  are  small  as  compared  with  the  Corliss 
type.  The  Corliss  type  with  disengaging  valve  gear  is 
limited  in  rotative  speed.  There  are  builders  that  put  in 
double-ported  valves  with  steam  closed  dash-pots  that 
will  get  150  revolutions.  The  objection  (there  seems  to 
be  but  one)  to  the  Corliss  engine  is  the  cost  of  the  mech- 
anism for  operating  the  valves,  which  makes  the  first  cost 
of  the  engine  large ;  also  the  longer  stroke  must  always 
make  this  engine  more  expensive  in  first  cost  than  ,the 
single-valve  engines,  but  not  more  so  than  those  imita- 
tions of  the  Corliss  idea  of  using  four  valves  at  the  ends 
of  the  cylinder.  The  valve  gear  should  not  be  run  over 
125  revolutions. 


175 


Air  Pumps  and  Condensers. 

When  James   Watt   separated   the   condenser   from 
the  cylinder  of  the  steam  engine,  he  built  his  air  pump 


CONNECTION  FOR  AIR  PUMP  TRUNK 


Fig.  83. 

similar  to  Fig.  83.  There  has  been  some  refinement  put 
on  this,  but  in  the  main  it  is  the  best  plan  for  an  air  pump 
ever  designed. 

Mr.  Corliss  added  something  to  it  of  value.    He  put 
in  iron  rods  A  A,  with  set-screws  through  cover,  to  hol'd 

176 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Air  Pump  Packing. 

down  the  top  valve  plate.  When  it  is  necessary  to  lift 
this  cover  the  set-screws  can  be  loosened  and  the  rods 
taken  out.  He  then  put  in  two  holes  through  this  plate, 
which  are  closed  with  plugs  when  the  pump  is  in 
operation. 

When  the  plate  is  to  be  lifted,  the  pump  is  put  at  its 
lowest  position,  these  plugs  taken  out  and  bolts  with  an 
engagement,  threaded  near  the  head,  shown  at  B.  This 
bolt  reaches  to  the  plunger,  and  by  raising  the  pump  to 
its  position  the  top  plate  is  raised  and  access  had  to  the 
plunger. 

Mr.  Corliss  also  made  an  arrangement  for  driving 
the  pump — that  is,  the  connection  to  the  bottom  of  the 
trunk  of  a  long  strap  with  a  rod  between  the  top  and 
bottom  brasses,  so  that  when  the  key  is  driven  at  the  top, 
both  top  and  bottom  brasses  are  tightened  alike. 

The  usual  method  for  packing  the  plungers  was  with 
hemp,  which  would  last  but  a  short  time.  A  man  got  a 
patent  for  a  packing  made  from  maple  blocks,  the  joints 
rabbeted,  and  this  packing  made  double.  This  packing 
was  held  against  the  cylinder  by  two  coils  of  rubber  hose 
made  without  canvas,  Fig.  84.  He  sold  his  patent  to  Mr. 
Corliss,  and  it  was  the  only  patent  Mr.  Corliss  ever 
bought.  An  engineer  had  one  of  these  pumps,  26-inch 
cylinder,  in  use  six  years,  and  thinking  the  packing  must 
be  used  up,  he  procured  a  new  set  to  replace  the  old ;  but 
upon  taking  the  old  out  he  found  it  in  perfect  condition, 
and  replaced  it. 

These  pumps,  as  generally  run,  have  a  pound  wher 
the  water  on  top  of  the  plunger  strikes  the  valve  plate. 
One  of  Mr.  Harris's  engineers  learned  to  put  in  a  ^2- 
inch  pipe  with  globe  valve,  as  shown  at  C,  and  by  open- 
ing this  valve  about  one-eighth  of  a  turn,  just  sufficient 

177 


A  Patent  Corliss  Bought. 


to  let  in  air  enough  to  cushion  the  water  and  open  the 
valves  before  the  water  struck  them,  all  pounding  from 
the  above  cause  would  be  prevented. 

This  is  sure  on  all  properly  designed  pumps,  but  as 
these  pumps  are  lined  with  bronze,  and  all  the  parts  of 
bronze  are  very  expensive,  there  is  too  often  a  tempta- 
tion to  make  them  too  small.  When  too  small,  this  air 
cushion  is  of  no  avail,  and  will  reduce  the  vacuum. 


Fig.  84.     Air  pump  packing  that  Corliss  bought. 

An  air  pump  cylinder  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity 
so  that  the  water  to  be  removed  should  not  fill  over  35 
per  cent.,  leaving  the  rest  for  air  and  vapor,  which  at 
that  pressure  require  a  large  space. 

When  boiler  pressures  were  low,  condensers  were  a 
necessity,  but  as  pressures  increased  many  steam  users 
got  along  without  them,  and  because  of  their  expense, 
the  percentage  of  condensing  engines  was  small. 

About  the  year  1870  a  man  by  name  of  Ransom 
invented  a  condenser,  a  cross-section  of  which  is  shown 

178 


The  First  Syphon  Condenser. 

in  Fig.  85.     This  was  the  first  syphon  condenser. 

At  the  top  of  the  condenser  was  a  plate,  perforated 


Fig.  85.    The  first  syphon  condenser— Ransom's. 

except  over  the  end  of  the  exhaust  pipe. 

The   injection    pipe    reached    above    the    perforated 

179 


Trouble  with  early  Condensers. 

plate.  The  discharge  pipe  was  of  the  same  size  as  the 
exhaust  and  filled  with  i-inch  pipes,  as  shown.  These 
pipes,  near  the  top,  had  branches  through  which  the 
water  entered,  and  as  the  water  passed  down  the  pipes 
it  drew  in  air  and  vapor  at  the  top.  Of  course  this  con- 
denser must  be  34  feet  above  the  hot  well. 

A  great  many  of  these  condensers  were  put  in,  as 
they  were  inexpensive  and  had  nothing  about  them  to 
need  repairs,  except  a  cold  water  pump. 

They  would  produce  from  24  to  27  inches  of  vacuum, 
and  many  of  them  did  good  work ;  but  there  being  no 
way  of  telling  the  height  of  water  in  them,  and  as  it  was 
necessary  to  have  the  water  over  the  top  of  the  discharge 
pipe  to  get  the  best  vacuum,  many  an  engineer  pumped 
the  water  until  it  went  over  the  top  of  the  exhaust  pipe, 
and  a  wreck  followed.  There  were  so  many  of  these 
wrecks  that  this  condenser  was  short  lived. 

About  the  time  these  condensers  were  wrecking 
engines  and  steam  users  had  awaked  to  the  fact  that  about 
25  per  cent,  of  fuel  could  be  saved  with  a  good  con- 
denser, Mr.  Henry  W.  Bulkley  came  out  with  his  syphon- 
injector  condenser,  his  patent  being  for  a  syphon  and 
injector  combined  when  applied  to  a  condenser. 

This  condenser  is  shown  in  Fig.  86.  If  we  let  water 
flow  from  the  end  of  a  pipe,  it  will  take  a  tapered  form. 
These  condensers  are  made  in  that  form.  They  are 
finished  inside  so  as  to  give  a  smooth  flow.  There  is 
a  cone  having  a  small  annular  space  at  the  end, 
this  annular  space  being  of  the  right  capacity  to  let  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  through  without  pressure,  and 
also  the  throat  at  the  bottom  is  of  the  same  capacity. 

The  fjange  at  top  of  condenser  is  placed  34  feet  above 
the  hot  well,  and  the  hot  well  should  be  of  sufficient  size 

180 


Bulkley's  Condenser. 


to  hold  the  water  at  all  times  over  the  lower  end  of  the 
pipe. 

Accidents  with  this  condenser  can  occur :    By  allow- 
ing the  lower  end  of  the  discharge  pipe  to  become  uncov- 


Fig.  86.     Bulkley's  syphon  condenser. 

ered  and  air  bubbles  to  enter,  lifting  the  water  after 
the  manner  of  the  air  lift  in  wells ;  by  putting  on  a  heavy 
pressure  of  water  and  forcing  more  through  the  end  of 

181 


Hot  Well  Capacity. 

the  cone  than  will  readily  pass  out  of  the  throat ;  by  put- 
ting on  sufficient  pressure  to  collapse  the  cone;  by  the 
bursting  of  a  tube  in  a  heater  in  the  exhaust  pipe. 

There  is  no  excuse  for  any  of  these  mishaps  to  occur. 

The  hot  well  should  be  double  the  capacity  of  the 
down,  or  tail  pipe,  and  no  water  other  than  the  feed 
should  be  taken  from  it. 

If  necessary  to  use  water  from  the  hot  well  for 
other  purposes,  there  should  be  a  second  well  for  that 
purpose. 

An  important  thing  is  to  have  a  good  strainer  over 
the  suction  pipe,  or  there  will  be  the  annoyance  of  taking 
out  the  cone  to  remove  obstructions.  The  objection  to 
this  condenser  is  that  it  requires  a  constant  water  supply 
to  fill  the  throat  regardless  of  the  load.  The  vacuum 
produced  with  not  over  300  feet  elevation  above  sea  level 
is  28  inches  by  mercury  gage. 

One  of  these  condensers  was  elevated  20  feet  above 
the  water  supply,  and  which,  after  starting,  would  draw 
its  own  water.  In  one  case  a  large  hole  wore  through 
a  heater  coil,  allowing  the  water  to  flow  direct  into  the 
exhaust  without  giving  trouble.  This  went  on  for  some 
time  and  was  finally  discovered  by  seeing  a  large  stream 
of  water  running  out  of  the  drain  pipe  while  the  engine 
was  standing. 

There  have  been  some  modifications  of  this  con- 
denser. Because  of  the  trouble  with  the  cone  stopping 
up,  one  builder  made  them  with  adjustable  cones,  so  that 
more  or  less  water  could  be  let  through  and  also  the  cone 
could  be  lifted  to  let  out  any  obstructions.  A  condenser 
of  this  description  will  not  produce  a  high  vacuum. 

The  Worthington  Pump  Company,  in  1900,  com- 
menced building  a  condenser  similar  to  the  Bulkley,  which 

182 


Worthington's  Condenser. 

is  shown  in  Fig.  87.  This  does  not  have  the  cone,  and 
if  it  depended  on  the  condenser  alone,  would  not  produce 
a  high  vacuum.  They  put  in  a  pipe  in  the  center  of  the 
condenser  which  leads  through  a  cooler  placed  in  the  in- 


HAND  WHEEL 


AIR  COOLER 


OPENING  TO  TAIL  PIPE 

Fig.  87.     Worthington's  syphon  condenser. 


jection  pipe  and  then  to  a  dry  vacuum  pipe.  The  ob- 
ject is  to  pump  any  air  not  taken  out  by  the  water  through 
this  dry  vacuum  pump.  The  claim  is  made  that  a  less 
amount  of  water  is  required  than  with  the  Bulkley. 

The  syphon  condenser  showed  steam  users  that  there 

183 


Conover's  Plan. 

was  about  25  per  cent,  saved  by  the  use  of  condensers. 
A  demand  arose  for  condensing  apparatus,  and  nearly 
every  pump  builder  commenced  building  them  in  con- 
nection with  their  horizontal  pumps.  Some  of  them  did 
very  good  work,  but  a  horizontal  pump  is  not  the  better 
plan  for  an  air  pump. 

In  the  first  place,  horizontal  direct-acting  pumps 
sometimes  stop.  They  are  great  consumers  of  steam. 
A  large  horizontal  water  cylinder  has  a  way  of  collecting 
grit  in  the  packing  and  cutting  the  lining  out.  A  vertical 
pump  as  built  by  Watt  is  not  so  liable  to  do  this. 

A  duplex  pump  is  an  improper  pump  to  use,  as  it  is 
very  liable  to  take  short  strokes,  which  makes  large  clear- 
ance, and  is  also  liable  for  a  time  to  make  so  short  strokes 
that  the  engine  cylinder  becomes  filled  with  water. 

Mr.  E.  K.  Conover,  seeing  the  large  amount  of  steam 
used  for  the  condenser,  took  up  the  Watt  air  pump  and 
attached  it  to  a  special  compound  engine  with  Corliss 
valves  and  adjustable  cut-off.  This  made  an  exceedingly 
economical  independent  condenser  and  very  compact. 
As  it  is  driven  by  an  engine  with  crank  and  eccentric  it 
does  not  stop  when  one  is  not  watching. 

If  sufficiently  large  for  the  work  it  will  maintain  the 
high  vacuum  of  this  type  of  air  pump,  and  as  it  is  ver- 
tical, there  is  very  little  danger  from  cut  cylinders.  It 
cannot  be  built  as  cheaply  as  the  horizontal  type. 

Since  Mr.  Conover  showed  such  excellent  results, 
other  builders  have  adopted  the  practice  of  building  the 
larger  sizes  of  air  pumps  vertical,  and  with  compound 
engines,  so  that  vertical  pumps  have  become  universal. 

The  important  thing  to  look  after  in  a  condensing 
plant  is  absolute  tightness.  A  small  leak  of  cold  air  ad- 
mitted to  the  exhaust  and  becoming  heated,  takes  up  a 

184 


Hot  Well  Temperature. 


great  deal  of  room.  Care,  therefore,  should  be  taken  to 
have  all  joints  in  the  exhaust  and  all  rods  and  stems  as 
nearly  tight  as  possible. 

If  only  a  partial  vacuum  can  be  obtained  and  the 
pointer  on  the  vacuum  gage  fluctuates,  it  is  a  pretty  sure 
sign  of  an  air  leak.  An  excellent  way  for  stopping  air 
leaks  is  to  get  as  high  a  vacuum  as  possible  and  then 
paint  the  whole  exhaust  system,  carefully  watching  the 
whole  surface  to  see  if  any  place  is  found  where  the  paint 
is  drawn  in.  If  the  hole  is  not  too  large,  constant  paint- 
ing will  finally  stop  it.  After  the  whole  surface  has  been 
gone  over  carefully,  test  the  exhaust  relief  valve.  The 
final  test  is  to  stop  up  the  outlet  from  condenser,  fasten 
down  the  relief  valve  and  turn  on  steam  until  15  or  20 
pounds  pressure  shows.  This  test  should  not  be  tried  un- 
less absolutely  necessary,  as  it  expands  everything,  and 
of  itself  is  liable  to  induce  leaks. 

The  water  in  the  hot  well  is  sufficiently  cool  if  100 
degrees  Fahr.  It  may  be  no  degrees  and  with  a  good 
condenser  get  26  inches.  90  degrees  for  2&l/2  inches. 

With  any  engine  a  vacuum  will  rlemove  the  atmos- 
pheric resistance  and  will  show  economy,  except  with 
leaky  valves  or  piston.  In  such  a  case  the  steam  will 
leak  faster  into  a  vacuum  than  into  the  air,  and  a  con- 
denser may  show  a  loss. 

A  condenser,  however,  shows  best  with  a  full  loaded 
engine. 

When  the  Ransom  condenser  came  out,  a  manu- 
facturer put  one  on  a  24-inch  cylinder. 

The  addition  of  the  vacuum  showed  such  a  saving 
that  he  reasoned  that  if  he  had  a  larger  cylinder  the  va- 
cuum would  do  more  work  and  he  would  get  still  better 
results,  so  he  took  off  the  24-inch  and  put  on  a  3O-inch, 

185 


Water  for  Jet  Condenser. 

with  the  result  that  he  consumed  more  fuel. 

His  24-inch  cylinder  showed  a  diagram  card  like 
the  full  lines  in  Fig.  88,  while  the  3O-inch  showed  one  like 
the  dotted  lines.  The  work  done  by  the  vacuum  was  no 
more  with  the  larger  cylinder,  because  of  the  earlier  cut- 
off, while  the  cylinder  condensation  was  largely  increased. 

A  22  x  42-inch  cylinder  and  75  pounds  of  steam  with 
26  inches  vacuum  showed  much  better  results  than  a  38  x 
48-inch  with  8  pounds  of  steam  and  the  same  vacuum 
doing  the  same  work. 

For  determining  the  amount  of  water  for  a  jet  con- 
denser, the  usual  approximate  rule  is  20  times  the  amount 
of  water  that  is  used  to  generate  the  steam. 


Fig, 


One  rule  to  estimate  the  amount  is:  Divide  1,000 
by  the  difference  between  100  degrees  and  the  injection 
water ;  multiply  the  weight  of  steam  used  per  hour  by  the 
quotient,  and  the  result  will  be  the  weight  of  water 
required. 

Because  of  the  amount  of  water  required  for  a  con- 
denser there  are  many  places  where  they  could  not  be 
used.  About  1891  H.  R.  Worthington  came  out  with  a 
cooling  tower,  shown  in  Fig.  89.  This  consists  of  a  steel 

186 


Cooling  Tower. 

— • —  .._ 

shell,  open  at  the  top  and  supported  on  a  suitable  founda- 
tion. On  one  side  of  the  shell  is  a  fan  to  force  a  current 
of  air  through  the  tower.  The  filling  consists  oi  earthen 


COLD  WATER 


SUCTION  TANK 

Fig.  89.     Worthington  cooling  tower. 


tiling  set  on  end.  The  water  from  condenser  is  carried 
by  pipe  to  top  of  tower  and  distributed  by  spraying  over 
the  ends  of  the  top  set  of  tile,  and  the  water  is  spread 

187 


Action  of  Cooling  Tower. 

evenly  and  in  a  thin  sheet  over  the  outside  and  inside 
of  the  tiles,  and  is  met  by  the  air  from  the  fan.  When 
the  writer  was  first  shown  one  of  these,  and  having  some 
knowledge  of  the  power  required  to  move  large  bodies 
of  air,  he  inquired  why  they  did  not  put  a  stack  on  top 
and  save  the  power  required  to  drive  the  fan.  This  has 
later  been  done. 

Later  Mr.  Barnard  invented  a  tower  that  operates 
with  neither  fan  nor  stack,  although  it  will  do  more  work 
if  encased  and  used  as  the  Worthington.  This  tower 
consists  of  mats  made  from  wire  cloth  and  hung  in  a  ver- 
tical position,  over  the  tops  of  which  the  water  from  the 
condenser  is  distributed.  As  the  water  flows  down  the 
mats  it  turns  in  and  through  the  interstices  and  is  thor- 
oughly broken  up  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air, 
and,  its  progress  being  so  slow,  a  long  time  is  given  the 
air  for  contact  with  it.  It  is  open  on  all  sides  to  the  air; 
and,  to  get  the  best  results  as  a  fanless  and  stackless 
tower,  it  should  be  placed  in  an  exposed  position  where 
the  wind  has  free  access  from  all  sides. 

The  action  of  all  these  towers  is  the  same — the  con- 
tact of  air  and  evaporation.  The  latter  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, as  the  more  rapidly  the  moist  air  can  be  driven 
away  the  greater  will  be  the  evaporation  with  a  conse- 
quent reduction  of  temperature.  Other  fanless  towers 
have  been  built  of  wood  with  excellent  results. 

Connected  with  the  cooling  tower  in  many  cases,  but 
more  often  in  marine  work,  is  the  surface  condenser,  one 
form  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  90.  The  circulating  water 
passes  through  the  tubes,  and  the  exhaust  steam,  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  outside  of  the  tubes,  is  condensed 
and  removed  by  the  air  pump.  The  air  pump,  in  this 
case,  can  be  smaller  than  when  all  water  must  be  handled 

188 


Surface  Condenser. 

by  it,  and  the  condensed  steam,  free  from  all  impurities 
but  oil,  can  be  returned  to  the  boilers.  The  oil  question 
with  large  horizontal  engines  is  a  serious  drawback. 


is     8 


The  low-pressure  cylinders  of  compound  engines  of 
the  horizontal  type  require  large  quantities  of  com- 
pounded cylinder  oil,  the  worst  thing  that  can  be  used  for 

189 


Using  Surface  Condenser. 

a  boiler.  In  some  cases  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  use 
the  water  from  condensation. 

In  the  first  place,  there  should  be  a  good  oil  separator 
put  in  the  exhaust  just  as  it  enters  the  condensers.  This 
will  separate  all  the  water  and  oil  in  the  form  of  liquid, 
but  the  larger  part  of  the  oil  has  been  vaporized,  and 
the  animal  part  has  become  an  emulsion  in  the  steam  and 
becomes  a  portion  of  the  condensed  steam.  It  is  at  this 
point  that  the  great  trouble  arises  in  separation. 

Salt,  hay,  excelsior,  sponges  and  various  absorbents 
have  been  tried.  Should  sponges  be  tried,  soak  them  in 
oil  and  squeeze  them  dry.  They  will  then  reject  water 
and  take  up  oil.  About  the  best  plan  is  a  tank  like  Fig.  91. 
This  consists  of  a  series  of  partitions  whereby  the  water 
goes  first  under,  then  over,  then  under,  etc.,  until  it  comes 
to  the  opposite  end,  when  it  is  taken  out  by  a  pipe,  as 
shown.  During  all  the  movement  of  the  water  through 
the  tank  the  oil  has  every  facility  to  come  to  the  top  and 
stay  there.  The  important  thing  is  that  the  tank  be 
large  and  the  passage  of  the  water  very  slow.  It  is  still 
better  if  the  water  can  be  carried  a  long  distance  through 
a  large  pipe  before  coming  to  the  tank  and  frequently  a 
second  tank  is  necessary. 

It  is  advisable  to  build  a  large  tank,  as  large  as  one 
can  afford,  but  for  1,000  H.  P.  capacity  not  less  than  15' 
square  and  12'  deep,  let  the  water  enter  at  the  top  and 
pass  to  feed  pump  from  bottom. 

When  used  together,  a  cooling  tower  should  cool 
the  water  below  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air 
and  the  surface  condenser  should  cool  the  condensed 
water  to  not  above  115  degrees.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
one  foot  area  of  tube  surface  would  cool  10  to  12  pounds 
of  steam,  but  experience  has  shown  that  with  water  from 

190 


Getting  the  Oil  Out. 


tower  at  98  degrees  one  could  not  count  on  over  6  pounds 
of  water  from  one  foot  of  tube  area. 

These  condensers  are  necessary  only  with  bad  waters, 
and  with  bad  water  and  high  temperature  in  the  con- 
denser, the  tubes  get  scaled  quickly.  In  one  case  a  firm 
had  such  bad  water  and  the  condensing  apparatus  was 
so  small  for  the  work  that  the  temperature  of  the  water 
as  it  went  to  the  tower  was  so  high  that  the  inside  of  the 
pipe,  valve  disc  and  seats  were  covered  with  scale. 

Where  water  is  scarce,  one  reason  for  putting  in  a 
cooling  tower  has  been  the  idea  that  most  of  the  water 
required  for  the  boilers  could  be  saved,  but  the  evapora- 


Fig.  91.     A  good  plan  for  a  tank. 

tion  from  the  tower  amounts  to  nearly  as  much  as  the 
exhaust  from  a  non-condensing  engine. 

The  idea  that  some  people  have  as  to  the  nature  of 
a  vacuum  is  surprising.  Many  consider  it  a  source  of 
power,  whereas  there  is  no  power  in  it.  It  is  simply  a 
space  devoid  of  power  or  resistance.  It  removes  all  re- 
sistance from  the  exhaust  side  of  the  piston  and  allows  a 
pressure  that  equals  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  to  do 
mechanical  work. 

An  engineer  came  across  an  article  that  stated  that 
at  the  dock  trial  of  a  steamship,  to  the  engines  of  which 
was  attached  an  independent  condenser,  the  valves  and 
pistons  of  the  engines  were  so  tight,  and  the  engines 

191 


About  Vacuum. 

throughout  were  so  perfect,  that  when  the  steam  was 
shut  off  the  engines  continued  to  run  from  the  vacuum 
produced  by  the  independent  condenser,  and  that  the 
vacuum  had  to  be  broken  before  the  engines  could  be 
stopped. 

The  engineer  wrote  an  article  saying  that  it  did  not 
show  perfection;  that  it  simply  showed  that  the  throttle 
leaked. 

This  was  resented  by  the  writer  of  the  article,  and  it 
started  a  discussion  that  was  taken  up  by  the  various 
mechanical  papers,  that  lasted  over  a  year,  and  it  was 
surprising  the  number  of  engineers  who  actually  believed 
that  with  an  independent  condenser  a  marine  engine 
could  turn  a  propeller  in  the  water  indefinitely  without 
any  steam  being  admitted  to  the  cylinders. 

He  had  an  engine  with  steam  cylinder,  30  x  60 
inches,  with  tight  piston,  valves  and  throttle  valve,  to 
which  was  connected  an  air  pump,  26  x  12  inches.  He 
reasoned  that  as  the  steam  piston  was  larger  and  ran 
at  a  higher  speed,  it  must  produce  a  better  vacuum  on  the 
steam  side  of  the  piston  when  the  steam  was  shut  off 
tight,  than  the  smaller  and  slower-moving  air  pump,  so 
he  took  a  card  under  those  conditions.  The  vacuum  on 
the  exhaust  side  of  piston  was  27  inches,  and  on  the 
opposite  or  steam  side  was  283/2  inches.  This  any  one 
can  verify  if  he  has  an  engine  perfectly  tight,  including 
the  throttle. 

Some  men  have  an  idea  that  the  vacuum  can  lift 
water  out  of  a  condenser  into  the  cylinder.  A  vacuum 
can  do  no  work,  not  even  lift  water.  Take  a  gage  glass, 
plug  one  end  tight,  fill  the  glass  to  within  2  inches  of 
the  top  with  water  and  produce  a  vacuum  at  the  top, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  water  cannot  be  moved. 

192 


Work  of  a  Vacuum. 

Admit  a  little  air  at  the  bottom  and  the  water  will  be 
raised  all  right. 

Not  until  water  can  be  raised  out  of  a  glass  tube 
plugged  tight  at  the  bottom  will  it  ever  be  possible  to 
raise  water  out  of  a  condenser  into  an  engine  cylinder, 
unless  air  be  admitted  from  the  outside.  The  condenser 
may  be  flooded  and  flow  back,  but  never  raised. 

The  writer  was  in  the  office  of  a  large  engineering 
firm,  and  there  heard  the  remark  so  often  made,  "When 
steam  is  shut  off  the  engine  is  changed  into  an  air  pump." 

It  seems  strange  what  a  large  number  of  engineers 
believe  this.  When  steam  is  shut  off  the  engine  is  not 
changed  into  an  air  pump.  The  exhaust  valve  on  exhaust 
end  is  open  to  the  vacuum  on  a  condensing  engine,  and 
the  exhaust  valve  on  the  other  end  is  closed.  Cards  taken 
from  an  engine  with  tight  throttle,  piston  and  valves, 
showed  about  one  inch  better  vacuum  on  the  steam  side 
of  the  piston  than  on  the  exhaust  side,  but  this  was  im- 
mediately lost  as  soon  as  the  exhaust  on  that  end  com- 
menced to  open. 

An  engine  can  only  become  an  air  pump  when  the 
valves  are  reversed.  When  the  engine  is  driven  from 
some  other  source,  or  by  the  momentum  of  the  wheel, 
and  the  valves  reversed,  the  engine  will  be  changed  into 
a  pump. 

This  engineer  also  made  the  other  remark  we  hear 
so  frequently,  "When  the  engine  is  changed  into  a  pump 
it  will  'suck'  water  out  of  the  condenser." 

This  shows  what  confused  ideas  many  men  get  about 
the  nature  of  a  vacuum.  A  vacuum  is  a  space  that  is 
inert.  It  has  no  force  or  energy  of  any  kind. 

We  see  a  non-condensing  engine  attached  to  a  con- 
denser and  noting  how  much  easier  it  runs  it  naturally 

193 


An  Example. 

seems  that  the  vacuum  has  done  lots  of  work.  We  see 
steam  shut  off  from  an  engine  with  the  exhaust  open  to 
the  atmosphere  and  note  that  the  engine  stops  in  one 
minute.  We  then  attach  the  exhaust  to  a  condenser  with 
a  high  vacuum  and  note  that  when  steam  is  shut  off 
the  engine  may  run  five  or  ten  minutes,  and  it  appears 
as  though  the  vacuum  was  doing  a  whole  lot  of  work 
in  that  engine. 

Suppose  a  boy  is  pushing  a  cart  and  is  applying  a 
force  of  30  pounds,  but  a  boy  in  front  of  him  is  holding 
back  with  a' force  of  15  pounds,  the  cart  will  be  moved 
forward  with  a  force  of  15  pounds.  Suppose  the  ob- 
structing boy  drops  out  of  the  way.  The  boy  pushing, 
exerting  no  more  force  than  at  first,  can  move  double 
the  load,  or  move  the  same  load  faster.  It  is  this  boy 
that,  while  putting  forth  no  more  energy,  is  accomplish- 
ing work.  It  is  not  the  obstructing  boy  who  is  doing  any 
work.  His  case  is  simply  that  of  resistance  removed. 
He  is  simply  out  of  the  way. 

It  is  the  same  with  a  vacuum.  It  is  simply  atmos- 
pheric resistance  removed.  A  vacuum  cannot  suck  water 
out  of  a  condenser  or  out  of  any  other  place. 

Water  has  never  been  raised  by  a  vacuum,  even  to 
the  extent  of  one  one-thousandth  part  of  an  inch.  It 
has  always  been  raised  by  pressure. 


194 


Tools  for  the  Engine  Room. 

An  important  item  for  the  engineer  is  a  complement 
of  handy  tools.  The  much-abused  monkey-wrench  will 
never  be  entirely  replaced,  but,  if  one  -can  afford  it,  a  set 
of  drop-forged  steel  wrenches  will  do  much  better  work, 
as  they  do  not  spring. 

Sometimes  there  will  be  a  large  nut  or  plug  that  no 
ordinary  wrench  will  fit,  when  a  square  bar  of  steel  can 
be  bent  at  the  end,  as  shown.  The  bar  should  be  of 
sufficient  area  so  that  it  will  not  spring  open,  and  a§ 
the  entire  bar  can  be  used  for  a  lever  it  makes  a  power- 
ful wrench. 

One  form  of  home-made,  large  monkey-wrench  is  made 
like  Fig.  92,  the  key  being  used  to  set  the  jaws  for  any 
sized  nut.  These  are  made  4  feet  long,  with  a  hole 
at  the  end  of  the  lever  "for  attaching  a  small  tackle. 

Sometimes  an  obstinate  nut  can  be  started  by  holding 
it  hard  against  the  nut  and  striking  the  end  of  the  wrench 
with  the  ball  of  the  hand,  or  a  block  of  heavy  wood  can 
be  used,  striking  the  wrench  with  the  end  of,  the  stick. 
A  stick  of  wood  does  not  batter  the  wrench  like  a  ham- 
mer and  does  more  effectual  work — a  hammer  strikes  too 
solid  a  blow  and  is  liable  to  break  something. 

Altogether  too  many  wrenches  are  ruined  by  the  use 
of  hammers,  and  in  screwing  up  work,  too  many  bolts  are 
broken  or  are  strained  to  such  an  extent  that  they  let  go 
in  service.  A  piece  of  gas  pipe  over  the  end  of  a  wrench 
has  been  the  cause  of  many  disasters. 

A  handy  tool  for  many  uses  is  the  Jimmy.  This  is  made 
from  %-inch  steel  and  is  18  inches  long.  Another  form 
is  also  shown,  the  long  end  being  used  to  put  through 
holes  in  flanges  to  bring  them  into  line. 

195 


si 

il)  rt^j 


Engineers'  Handy  Tools. 

Wrecking  wedges,  as  shown,  are  used  for  opening 
joints  of  all  kinds,  being  sharp  at  the  end  and  a  long 
taper.  They  are  easily  inserted  and  very  powerful. 

For  cleaning  flanges  that  can  be  separated  but  slight- 
ly the  thin  tools  are  convenient,  the  tool  being  but  1-16 
inch  thick  and  the  flat  part  4  to  5  inches  long.  A  small 
screw-jack,  the  jeck  being  3  inches  long,  is  a  convenient 
tool. 

A  handy  form  of  scraper  in  many  cases  for  flange 
joints  is  shown,  also  a  hardwood  stick  for  driving 
packing  into  stuffing  boxes.  This  does  not  injure  the 
rod.  For  removing  packing  a  hook  at  the  end  like  a 
corkscrew  is  the  neatest  thing,  although  if  the  packing 
is  thoroughly  rotten,  the  old-style  hook,  simply  the  end 
of  a  rod  bent  over,  must  be  resorted  to. 

At  the  present  time  very  neat  cutters  for  cutting  glass 
gages  are  on  the  market,  but  where  one  finds  himself 
without  one  he  can  make  the  tools  shown.  In  order  to 
do  a  neat  job  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  glass  on  the  inside. 
This  tool  is  drawn  down  and  bent  over  as  shown,  and 
the  point  made  sharp. 

When  hardening,  be  careful  not  to  heat  the  tool  too 
hot.  It  is  not  necessary  to  draw  the  temper  any,  provided 
it  was  not  too  hot.  When  steel  is  too  hot  and  plunged 
into  water,  the  grain  is  made  coarser  and  the  work  will 
be  brittle.  If  heated  just  right,  the  grain  will  be  made 
finer  and  the  tool  will  be  hard  and  tough  and  difficult 
to  break.  With  this  tool  a  scratch  can  be  made  around 
the  inside  of  the  glass  tube,  and,  if  it  does  not  break  of 
itself,  it  can  be  broken  by  placing  the  end  of  the  thumbs 
on  each  side  of  the  crack  and  attempting  to  bend  it.  It 
will  then  break  off  at  the  mark  made  by  the  tool. 

197 


Belting. 


I  was  called  upon  to  examine  and  report  upon  a  belt, 
as  the  claim  had  been  put  forth  that  it  was  a  sham. 

I  found  the  belt  connecting  the  engine  to  line  shaft, 
the  engine  pulley  20  feet  in  diameter  and  shaft  pulley 
about  5  feet. 

The  belt  was  made  from  a  fine  quality  of  leather  and 
well  put  together.  It  had  been  stretched  so  that  in  many 
places  the  leather  was  actually  pulled  apart  and  still  the 
glue  held. 

The  belt  was  large  enough  for  the  work,  but  the 
center  of  shafts  were  not  far  apart,  making  a  short  belt, 
and  as  the  pull  was  on  top,  it  was  necessary  to  keep  it 
taut.  There  was  no  idler. 

The  case  was  diagnosed  as  follows :  As  the  belt 
centers  were  short  and  it  was  necessary  that  the  belt  be 
tight  to  drive  the  load,  there  had  been  trouble  with  the 
belt  stretching.  When  the  weather  is  damp  a  belt  will 
stretch  and  will  grow  short  again  when  the  weather  is  dry. 

The  belt  having  given  trouble  by  stretching,  it  was 
but  natural  that  the  men  when  taking  it  up  should  say 
that  they  would  take  it  up  so  that  it  would  be  all  right 
for  a  long  time.  Should  this  be  done  when  there  was 
damp  weather  and  a  severe  strain  be  put  on  it  then,  when 
the  weather  became  dry  it  would  be  put  to  a  severe  test 
and  would  probably  be  in  the  condition  found. 

The  concern  using  the  belt  did  not  believe  in  idlers. 
There  are  many  ideas  both  for  and  against  idlers.  When 
the  belt  is  long  and  pull  on  the  bottom,  idlers  are  not  nec- 
essary. When  the  belt  is  short  and  the  pull  is  on  top,  an 
idler  saves  many  anxious  moments.  An  idler  should  al- 
ways be  put  on  the  slack  side  of  the  belt  whether  the  slack 
side  be  bottom  or  top. 

198 


Don't  Run  Belts  Too  Tight. 


An  idler  should  be  arranged,  in  adition  to  the  tight- 
ening screws,  so  that  one  end  of  the  shaft  can  be  moved 
back  and  forth  by  screws.  This  will  serve  to  guide  the 
belt  and  ofttimes  save  tightening  it.  It  does  this  on  the 
same  principle  that  a  roll  can  be  knocked  sideways  when 
moving  a  load. 

Fig.  93  shows  one  form  of  tightener  with  a  side  ad- 
justment for  the,  end  of  shaft. 


Fig.  93.    A  substantial  tightener. 

A  belt  should  never  be  run  tighter  than  absolutely 
necessary,  both  on  account  of  friction  of  shaft  and  also 
the  life  of  the  belt. 

Where  an  idler  is  used  the  belt  can  be  tightened  and 
save  many  a  shut-down.  When  screwing  up  a  tightener 
it  is  only  in  rare  cases  that  a  man  does  not  get  tired  and 
stop  when  the  belt  is  sufficiently  tight.  There  may  be  a 
few  cases  different,  but  they  are  rare.  When  a  belt  has 
to  be  tightened  by  shutting  down  and  using  belt  clamps, 
the  temptation  is  to  overdo  things. 

A  belt,  to  be  of  value,  should  be  made  of  the  best 

199 


Picking  Out  a  Good  Belt. 

part  of  the  hide,  which  is  the  back.  The  neck  and  shoul- 
ders are  a  spongy  mass,  easily  absorbing  moisture  and 
stretching  in  all  directions.  In  the  belly,  the  grain  runs 
different  and  this  is  also  inferior. 

The  hide  is  thick  at  the  center  of  the  back  and  slop- 
ing down  thinner  for  a  short  distance  and  then  gradually 
growing  thicker  to  the  belly.  Fig.  94  is  an  exaggerated 
cross  section. 

The  dotted  lines  on  Fig.  95  show  all  the  portion  that 
should  be  taken  from  the  hide  for  the  manufacture  of 
belts.  Fifty-four  inches  has  been  settled  upon  as  the 
longest  part  that  should  be  put  in  a  belt.  There  are  many 
hides  that  will  yield  longer  pieces  than  this,  but  if  only 
54  inches  are  allowed,  one  is  fairly  safe. 


Fig.  ,94.    Exaggerated  cross  section  of  a  hide. 

The  backs  are  called  "centers."  After  one  has  be- 
come familiar  with  the  appearance  of  the  center  of  the 
back  he  cannot  be  deceived.  There  is  no  possible  way 
discovered  yet  of  imitating  it  and  one  can  always  tell 
whether  a  piece  of  belting  has  the  center  of  the  back  run- 
ning through  it. 

A  belt  larger  than  48  inches  wide  should  have  more 
than  one  center,  else  it  will  be  encroaching  on  the  belly, 
with  a  stretchy  belt  as  the  result. 

A  belt  of  more  than  one  ply  should  be  made  of  only 
solid  leather  without  any  filling. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  hide  is  not  uniform 
in  thickness,  and  that  to  produce  a  belt  of  the  same  thick- 
ness throughout,  the  hide  must  have  the  high  portions 

200 


Where  Belt  Leather  Should  Come  From. 

shaved  down  on  the  flesh  side,  or  the  low  places  must  be 
filled  up  with  leather  shavings. 

When  a  belt  is  put  together  it  should  be  with  glue 
alone  and  there  is  no  excuse  for  stitches,  pegs  or  rivets. 

Some  belt  makers  claim  that  to  shave  down  the  high 
parts  of  the  flesh  side  so  as  to  make  the  thickness  uni- 
form greatly  reduces  the  strength  o?  the  hide,  and  that  a 
stronger  belt  can  be  made  by  filling  the  low  places  and 
they  succeed  in  getting  many  of  their  customers  to  be- 
lieve it.  This  is  a  matter  for  the  purchaser  to  decide. 


Flank 


Center 


Shoulder 


Flank 


Fig.  95.     Shows  only  part  to  be  used  for  belts. 

It  would  be  a  good  idea  for  him  to  see  the  belt  put  to- 
gether if  he  elects  to  have  the  leather  shaved  down. 

Heavy  main  belts  should  weigh  not  less  than  16 
ounces  per  square  foot  for  each  single  ply  without  any 
filling. 

A  double  ply  will  be  a  little  over  %  of  an  inch  thick 
and  three  ply  $/%  inch  thick. 

At  one  time  I  had  the  pleasure  of  putting  on  a  three- 
ply  belt  that  was  plump  ^4  mch  thick,  and  that  without 


20 1 


Making  a  Wide  Belt. 

any  filling  of  any  kind.  The  belt  maker  was  two  years 
selecting  the  hides  'for  this  belt. 

Hides  for  a  belt  should  be  dried  on  a  stretcher  and 
should  be  seasoned  for  several  months,  so  that  the  order 
for  an  important  belt  should  be  given  as  early  as  pos- 
sible. 

We  have  here  again  two  ideas.  Some  makers  claim 
that  to  take  the  stretch  out  of  new  leather  permanently 
injures  it  and  that  a  belt  will  be  longer  lived  if  it  is 
stretched  in  use — and  business  is  shut  down  to  take  it  up 
several  times.  Even  if  this  were  so,  the  interruption  of 
business  for  taking  up  a  belt  frequently  would  be  of  more 
account  than  the  cost  of  a  new  belt. 


Fig.  96.    The  best  way  to  make  a  wide  belt. 

When  pulleys  are  properly  made  and  the  shafts  in 
line,  there  are  two  causes  for  a  belt  not  running  true. 
One  is  that  the  belt  is  not  made  straight,  or  the  last  joint 
is  not  put  together  straight.  The  other  is  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  hides,  there  being  belly  leather  and  one  side 
stretching  more  than  the  other. 

An  excellent  way  to  make  a  belt  48  inches  wide  and 
over  is  to  put  three  centers  on  one  side  and  two  on  the 
other  made  with  a  running  splice,  or  the  joints  length- 
wise lapping  about  3  inches  instead  of  butting  together. 
This  is  a  more  expensive  belt,  but  fine  running.  Fig.  96. 

To  determine  the  length  of  a  belt,  multiply  the  dis- 
tance between  center  of  shafts  by  two,  add  the  diameter 
of  the  two  pulleys  together,  divide  by  two  and  multiply  by 
3^.  Add  this  product  to  the  first  product. 

202 


Horse-power  of  Belts. 

To  determine  the  horse-power  of  a  belt  some  authori- 
ties give  the  speed  of  a  i-inch  belt  as  600  feet  equals  I 
horse-power,  and  from  that  on  to  1,000  feet  equals  l  horse- 
power. 

If  we  take  the  first  the  rule  is  : 
speed   X   width 

-  =  H.P. 
600 

If  we  have  a  single  belt  12  inches  wide  and  running 
5,000  feet  per  minute,  it  becomes 
5,000  X  12 

-  =  ioo  H.P. 
600 

Should  we  take  1,000  feet  as  i  horse-power  it  would 
make  60  horse-power. 

Another  rule  takes  into  account  the  allowable  strain 
on  a  belt,  which  is  taken  to  be  70  pounds  as  the  highest 
allowable  strain  on  a  belt  one  inch  wide, 
speed  X  width  X  strain 

-  =  H.P. 
33,000 
or 

5,000  X  12  X  70 

-  sr    127  H.P. 
33,000 

By  adding  another  ply  will  add  75  per  cent,  to  the 
strength  of  the  belt. 

Extra  plys  add  weight,  which  is  also  important. 
Belts  sometimes  do  not  run  well  because  the  pulleys 
are  not  turned  accurately. 

At  one  place  an  engineer  put  up  some  work  .where 
the  belt  ran  to  one  side  and  the  purchaser  was  very  much 
put  out  and  was  saying  all  sorts  of  things  about  the  belt 

203 


Arc  of  Contact  vs.  Speed. 

and  wanted  the  maker  sent  for  right  away.  The  engineer 
admitted  that  if  '-he  belt  was  the  cause  of  the  trouble  the 
maker  should  be  called  upon  to  remedy  it,  but  suggested 
that  before  he  was  called  uf  on  that  the  purchaser  should 
do  the  first  thing  the  belt  maker  would  do — measure  the 
pulleys.  This  was  done  and  the  engine  pulley,  20  feet  in 
diameter,  was  found  J^  inch  larger  on  one  side  than  the 
other.  After  this  was  straightened  out  there  was  no 
further  trouble. 

There  used  to  be  a  great  account  made  of  the  "arc 
of  contact"  on  the  pulley  notwithstanding  that  the  belt 
usually  slips  on  the  driving  pulley,  which  is  the  largest 
and  has  the  largest  "arc  of  contact."  One  strong  "arc  of 
contact"  man  argued  that  as  he  had  had  trouble  with  the 
belt  slipping  on  some  of  his  work  and  as  increasing  the 
diameter  of  his  pulleys  had  remedied  the  slipping,  there- 
fore the  larger  pulleys,  having  a  larger  "arc  of  contact," 
were  what  was  desired.  After  some  talk  he  finally  ad- 
mitted that  the  higher  belt  speed  caused  by  the  larger 
diameter  pulleys  might  have  something  to  do  with  it. 

Belts  that  run  at  a  high  speed  frequently  get  charged 
with  static  electricity.  This  dries  out  a  belt,  rendering  it 
dry  and  brittle. 

A  copper  wire,  size  from  No.  6  to  No.  12,  with  a 
number  of  points  composed  of  wire,  stretched  across  the 
belt  at  a  point  where  it  runs  the  smoothest,  the  points  of 
wire  being  about  I  inch  from  the  belt  and  the  ends  of 
the  wire  grounded  on  bearings,  or  anywhere  convenient, 
will  remove  all  that  is  harmful. 

New  belts  are  dressed  with  what  is  termed  "water- 
proof .dressing."  Hardly  two  belt  makers  use  the  same 
preparation.  It  should  be  made  from  ingredients  that  will 
keep  the  belt  soft  and  pliable,  and  is  waterproof  only  so 

204 


A  Good  Belt  Dressing. 

far  as  it  has  filled  the  pores  of  the  belt  and  leaves  smaller 
space  for  moisture. 

One  of  the  best  belt  dressings  is  made  from  I  part 
neatsfoot  oil  and  3  parts  castor  oil. 

Nothing  should  ever  be  put  on  a  belt  except  some- 
thing that  will  keep  it  clean,  soft,  pliable,  etc.  No  rosin, 
or  like  drying  or  sticky  substance  should  ever  be  allowed 
upon  a  belt,  either  alone,  or  in  conection  with  other  in- 
gredients. But  little  should  be  put  on  at  a  time. 


Fig.  97.    A  good  hinge  joint. 

In  dusty  places  nothing  has  yet  been  found  that  is 
good  for  the  belt  that  will  prevent  the  belt  from  catching 
the  dust.  In  such  places  belts  should  be  kept  as  clean  as 
possible  by  frequent  wiping,  and  even  with  the  best  of 
care  they  will  have  to  be  changed  and  thoroughly  cleaned 
frequently. 

The  best  joint  for  a  belt  is  the  cemented  joint.  This 
requires  time  to  shave  down  properly,  and  about  five 
hours  to  set.  Because  it  cannot  be  pressed  like  the  rest 
of  the  belt  there  will  be  some  noise  when  this  joint  goes 
over  the  pulley,  but  if  properly  done  there  will  be  no 
jumping  and  the  speed  will  be  uniform. 

205 


Lacing  a  Belt. 

The  worst  joint  is  the  ordinary  laced  joint.  It  has 
the  merit  of  being  quickly  made.  Another  method  is  the 
"hinge  plan''  shown  in  Fig.  97.  An  important  item 
in  this  plan  is  good  lace  leather,  which  should  be  strong, 
well  tanned  and  uniform  in  thickness. 

Annealed  nickel  wire  makes  a  good  belt  lacing,  or 
what  is  better  a  composition  wire  made  especially  for  this 
purpose. 

Number  18  wire  will  do  for  single  3-inch  belts  and 
number  10  for  double  for  6  inch  and  above. 

A  single  row  of  holes  are  used,  the  holes  being  no 
farther  from  the  end  than  the  thickness  of  belt  and  %  inch 
apart  and  should  be  cut  with  a  3-32  inch  belt  punch.  Cut 
depression  on  inside  of  belt  for  the  wire.  Commence  lac- 
ing at  center  by  passing  the  ends  of  the  wire  through  the 
two  center  holes  to  the  pulley  side  of  the  belt.  The  lac- 
ing should  be  double  on  the  pulley  side;  then  lace  each 
way  to  the  side,  double  lacing  on  the  inside,  drawing  up 
tightly  all  the  time  without  kinks  or  crossing  the  wire. 
When  finished,  flatten  down  with  a  hammer  on  some  new 
surface. 

With  a  proper  wire  laced  joint  there  is  no  jar. 

There  are  various  patent  metallic  fastenings,  many  of 
them  doing  first-class  service. 

A  good  form  of  specifications  for  belt  is  as  follows : 

Specification  for  belt  to  be  put  on  pulleys  10  feet  and 
9  feet  6  inches  diameter  and  shaft  centers  48  feet : 

The  belt  shall  be  made  from  the  centers  of  selected 
hides,  which  shall  be  well  seasoned  and  stretched,  shall  be 
from  pure  oak-tanned  leather. 

The  belt  shall  be  60  inches  wide,  shall  be  three  ply, 
made  with  running  splice,  shall  have  three  centers  on  one 
face  and  two  on  the  other,  and  three  in  middle  ply.  No 

206     ' 


Belt  Specifications. 

center  shall  be  longer  than  54  inches.  The  belt  shall  be 
made  without  rilling,  splits  or  rivets,  and  shall  weigh  when 
finished  48  ounces  to  each  square  foot  before  any  water- 
proofing is  applied. 

When  the  hides  are  ready  to  make  up  the  engineer 
shall  be  notified  in  ample  time  and  shall  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  examine  the  hides  and  also  see  the  belt  put  to- 
gether. 

After  putting  together  the  belt  shall  be  thoroughly 
treated  with  a  waterproof  dressing  acceptable  to  the  en- 
gineer. 

The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  sample  of  belt  he  pro- 
poses to  furnish  with  his*  proposal.  This  sample  shall  be 
12  inches  square  and  shall  show  the  texture,  weight,  etc., 
that  are  proposed,  and  the  maker  agrees  that  if  the  belt 
shall  not,  in  every  particular,  be  equal  to  the  sample  in 
weight,  texture,  etc.,  and  made  according  to  specifications, 
he  will  put  the  belt  on  the  pulleys  and  allow  it  to  .be  used 
without  charge  until  a  suitable  belt  can  be  procured.  The 
sample  of  belt  shall  not  be  waterproofed. 

The  maker  shall  put  the  belt  on  the  pulleys  and  shall 
take  it  up  once  within  one  year  if  needed. 


207 


Oils. 


In  the  early  days  tallow  was  the  lubricant  for  the 
cylinder,  and  there  were  many  ingenious  devices  for  feed- 
ing it.  The  cup  that  gave  the  best  satisfaction  was  one 
having  -a  bottom  valve  for  adjusting  the  feed,  a  vent  to 
open  when  filling  and  a  valve  at  the  top  under  a  small 
cup.  This  required  the  tallow  to  be  "tried"  out  and  kept 
in  a  pot  set  where  it  would  keep  warm,  so  the  cup  could 
be  filled  readily. 

There  was  another  cup  that  was  filled  with  "leaf" 
tallow,  and  the  tallow  was  cooked  out  by  the  steam  heat. 
This  plan  had  the  merit  of  feeding  slowly,  but  one  hardly 
knew  when  it  began  to  feed  or  when  it  ended.  Taken  as 
a  lubricant  alone,  there  is  nothing  superior  to  tallow.  It 
also  has  the  merit  of  not  being  expensive.  It  has  in  its 
composition,  however,  the  animal  stearic  and  oleac  acids 
that  are  set  free  by  heat  and  change  all  inside  steam  sur- 
faces into  oxide  of  iron.  A  cylinder  head  made  from 
iron  was  very  porous,  and  in  a  few  years  the  acids  from 
the  tallow  had  worked  through  these  pores,  making  them 
larger,  until  the  steam  leaked  through  so  much  that  the 
head  was  ruined. 

There  was  also  a  sediment  from  the  tallow,  which, 

208 


A  Good  Oil. 

mixed  with  the  corroded  iron,  would  form  balls  that 
would  sometimes  clog  the  steam  passages. 

Neatsfoot  and  lard  oils  were  used,  and  while  not 
forming  the  balls  from  sediment  as  much  as  tallow,  they 
would  corrode  about  the  same. 

Sperm  oil  did  very  well,  when  genuine  sperm  could 
be  obtained,  but  the  trouble  with  the  fish  oils  of  all  kinds 
was  the  amount  of  gum  they  would  leave,  requiring  the 
valves  and  piston  to  be  all  taken  apart  and  cleaned  once 
in  three  or  four  months,  and  the  piston  follower  bolts 
that  were  broken  were  legion. 

An  engineer  had  had  his  trials  with  all  these  lubri- 
cants, when  one  day  an  oil  agent  appeared  who  claimed 
to  have  a  new  oil,  made  from  petroleum  with  a  slight 
amount  of  animal  oil,  that  would  do  better  work  than  the 
animal  oils,  would  not  gum  or  corrode,  and  would  clean 
out  all  the  old  oil.  His  story  seemed  so  much  like  a  fairy 
tale,  the  engineer  was  not  inclined  to  deal  with  him,  but 
he  persisted  in  having  a  barrel  sent  for  trial,  and  it  was 
thought  an  easy  way  to  get  rid  of  him. 

When  the  engineer  came  to  try  the  oil,  he  found  the 
agent  had  not  overstated  it,  and  it  did  elegant  work. 
After  this  oil  had  been  introduced  and  it  was  found  that 
petroleum  was  a  good  cylinder  lubricant,  other  manufac- 
turers commenced  producing  oils  from  petroleum,  the 
systems  and  mixtures  being  different.  Some  attempted 
to  make  cylinder  oil  from  clear  petroleum. 

One  day  the  treasurer  came  to  the  engineer  and  told 
him  there  was  an  oil  firm  he  would  like  to  purchase  from, 
on  account  of  the  price  of  the  goods  and  also  for  other 
business  reasons,  and  they  were  to  send  a  barrel  for  trial. 

After  using  the  oil' two  or  three  days,  the  engineer 
reported  the  oil  fully  equal  to  anything  they  had  used. 

209 


Oil  Agents. 

After  two  weeks  he  could  not  lubricate  the  valves,  and 
reported  the  manner  in  which  the  oil  was  working,  but 
said  he  could  manage  to  use  it  up.  The  oil  was  a  straight 
petroleum ;  a  piece  of  tallow  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg  'was 
put  in  a  quart,  and  it  went  all  right.  That  proportion  of 
tallow  will  not  show  in  the  cylinder,  but  use  one-half,  and 
the  deposit  in  the  cylinder  will  remind  one  of  the  old 
days  of  tallow. 

When  trying  different  oils  it  was  noticed  that  after  a 
good  oil  had  been  used  for  some  time  and  a  new  oil  was 
put  in,  for  a  few  days  the  new  oil  would  work  better,  even 
though  it  were  an  inferior  oil.  In  two  or  three  weeks 
much  larger  quantities  would  be  required.  It  is  this 
peculiarity  that  has  been  the  undoing  of  many  engineers 
who  have  persisted  in  opposing  a  change  in  oils. 

An  oil  agent  would  come  along  and  want  to  sell  a 
cheaper  oil  for  a  cheaper  price,  but  could  not  get  the  con- 
sent of  the  engineer.  The  agent  would  then  propose  to 
the  manager  that  he  deliver  to  the  agent  one  of  his  empty 
oil  barrels  and  he  would  -fill  it  with  his  oil,  while  the  en- 
gineer, knowing  nothing  of  the  trade,  would  suppose  he 
was  using  the  same  oil,  and  when  asked  by  the  manager 
if  the  oil  was  still  going  all  right  would  reply  that  it  was. 
This  would  be  deemed  proof  that  the  engineer  was 
untruthful,  and  he  would  get  his  discharge.  If  an  inferior 
oil  would  always  show  up  within  a  day  or  two,  many  an 
engineer's  reputation  would  have  been  saved. 

At  the  time  the  engineer  tried  the  petroleum  product 
there  were  no  lubricators  and  he  had  only  an  oil  pump. 
In  a  28-inch  cylinder  he  would  put  in  about  two  table- 
spoonfuls  at  one  and  one-half  hour  intervals.  What 
would  be  thought  of  oiling  a  cylinder  in  that  manner  and 
quantity  nowadays,  when,  if  there  is  an  oil  pump  on  a 


210 


Oil  That  Doesn't  Lubricate. 

cylinder,  the  man  running  the  engine  will  pump  in  a  tea- 
cupful  every  half  hour  in  addition  to  the  sight  feed. 

Shortly  after  the  petroleum  oils  came  hr  use,  the 
sight-feed  lubricators  came  out.  These  made  possible 
constant  and  correct  lubrication.  Since  then  have  come 
the  mechanical  oil  pumps,  so  that  engineers  can  now  take 
their  choice  of  a  number  of  first-class  devices. 

The  requisite  for  a  cylinder  oil  is  that  it  shall  be  suit- 
ed to  the  temperature,  the  quality  of  the  steam  and  the 
weight  of  the  parts  to  be  lubricated.  In  the  first  place 
the  oil  should  be  vaporized. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  when  an  oil  requires  large 
quantities  a  large  amount  of  the  oil  will  be  found  in 
the  cylinder  in  the  same  condition  that  it  was  in  before 
using,  while  an  oil  that  did  efficient  service  none  of  it 
would  be  found  in  the  cylinder,  except  in  the  form  of 
milky  water  in  low  places. 

The  effects  of  it,  however,  could  be  plainly  seen. 
Should  an  oil  not  be  of  sufficient  high-flash  test,  none  of 
it  will  be  found  in  the  cylinder,  and  the  surfaces  will 
appear  dry  and  devoid  of  lubrication. 

For  high  pressure  and  light  pistons  an  oil  having  a 
high  fire  test  and  medium  body  or  viscosity  is  required, 
while  with  low  pressure  and  heavy  pistons,  a  low  fire 
test  and  heavy  body  is  required. 

If  an  engineer  has  only  the  high  fire  test  oil  he  can 
sometimes  make  it  right  for  the  low-pressure  cylinder  by 
the  addition  of  ordinary  lubricating  oil,  provided  there  be 
sufficient  animal  oil  compounded  with  the  cylinder  oil. 
-If  not  properly  compounded,  if  he  can  get  tallow  that  is 
clean,  he  will  find  it  of  advantage  to  put  in  a  tablespoonful 
of  that  to  a  quart  of  his  cylinder  oil.  This  proportion  of 
tallow  will  have  no  ill  effect  in  the  cylinder. 

211 


To  Detect  Alkali. 

In  some  rare  cases,  where  a  high  fire  test  oil  is  used 
for  high  pressure  and  the  body  of  the  oil  is  so  heavy  that 
it  will  not  find  its  way  under  light-weight  moving  parts, 
the  addition  of  one-quarter  of  ordinary  engine  oil  will 
improve  it. 

For  heavy  weights  and  low  pressure  steam  there 
must  be  some  animal  oil.  An  indication  of  what  this 
animal  oil  is  is  shown  by  saponifying  a  sample.  Take  a 
2-ounce  bottle,  fill  half  full  of  water  and  put  in  a  stick  of 
caustic  soda  or  potash  or  a  little  strong  ammonia,  and  then 
fill  nearly  full  with  the  oil  and  shake  it  well.  Petroleum 
will  not  make  soap,  but  animal  oils  will,  so  that  the  animal 
oil  will  separate  and  leave  the  mineral  oil  intact,  except 
when  compounded  in  special  ways  with  neatsfoot  oil, 
when  the  whole  of  it,  mineral  oil  and  all,  will  thicken. 

Neatsfoot  oil  will  make  a  yellow  soap,  lard  oil  and 
tallow  a  white  soap,  fish  oils  a  little  darker  color  than  lard 
oil.  If  you  are  buying  a  pure  lard,  sperm  or  any  animal 
oil,  the  saponifying  test  will  indicate  whether  it  is  adulter- 
ated with  the  cheaper  mineral  products 

To  detect  acids  or  alkali  in  the  oil,  wash  a  sample  of 
oil  with  distilled  water  and  draw  off  the  water.  Take  a 
piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  and  dip  in  the  water,  and  if  it 
turns  red  there  is  acid  in  the  water.  If  red  litmus  paper 
turns  blue,  there  is  alkali. 

Many  engineers  have  a  high  regard  for  graphite  and 
have  believed  that  if  it  were  possible  to  suspend  graphite 
in  oil  so  that  it  would  feed  in  an  ordinary  lubricator  with- 
out clogging,  it  would  be  an  ideal  cylinder  lubricant. 

To  suspend  graphite  in  oil  the  question  of  gravity 
comes  in,  and  some  oil  or  some  substance  must  be  used 
that  is  heavier  than  graphite  so  that  the  graphite  will  float 
in  it.  Will  such  a  substance  be  a  good  cylinder  oil? 

212 


Viscosity. 

Such  a  combination  has  been  made  and  the  floating  of  the 
graphite  is  perfect. 

I  have  mentioned  viscosity  in  oils.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  mean,  body,  or  ability  to  withstand  pressure,  a 
highly  viscous  oil  may  be  valueless. 

The  test  for  viscosity  is  the  length  of  time  in  seconds 
it  requires  for  a  given  quantity  of  oil  to  flow  through 
a  given  opening  at  a  given  temperature. 

It  is  the  length  of  time  in  seconds  that  it  requires  for 
60  cubic  centimeters  of  the  oil  at  212°  to  flow  through 
an  opening  of  about  j£". 

An  oil  requiring  175  seconds  would  be  175  deg.  vis- 
cosity and  one  requiring  150  seconds  would  be  150 
degrees  viscosity. 

There  should  be  no  pressure  but  its  own  weight. 

The  most  viscous  oil  from  petroleum  is  the  tar  resi- 
due, of  no  value,  while  the  least  viscous  is  tallow,  the 
highest  value  as  a  lubricant  known,  so  that  viscosity  is  an 
indication,  not  a  proof. 

One  day  an  oil  agent  called  on  the  engineer,  but  was 
told  that  oil  was  out  of  date,  that  a  graphite  oil  had  been 
procured  and  no  more  cylinder  oil  would  be  needed. 

Said  the  agent :  "What  is  the  easiest  running  bearing 
made?  Is  there  any  bearing  that  is  less  frictionless  than 
a  ball  bearing?"  The  engineer  admitted  there  was  none. 

Said  the  agent :  "It  is  the  ball  bearing  that  represents 
the  oil.  Oil  is  made  up  of  globules  which  roll  like  a  ball 
bearing.  Graphite,  to  be  of  value,  must  be  the  flake 
graphite.  Flake  graphite  must  cause  sliding  friction  and 
sliding  friction  will  always  be  greater  than  rolling  fric- 
tion. Graphite  may  do  good  in  filling  up  low  places,  but 
as  a  lubricant  it  will  not  take  the  place  of  oil." 

The  engineer  went  ahead  and  tried  his  graphite,  and 
213 


Continuous  Oiling. 

while  it  fed  perfectly  it  would  not  do  the  work  of  oil  and 
was  abandoned.  It  appeared  to  work  more  like  the  cylin- 
der oil  that  does  not  vaporize. 

Machine  oil  can  be  all  mineral  oil,  and  should  be  for 
some  places.  Wherever  the  oil  is  in  a  case  with  mechan- 
ism running  in  the  same,  should  there  be  animal  oil  of  any 
kind  compounded  with  the  mineral,  the  animal  oil  or  fats 
will  form  an  emulsion  and  soon  get  thick  and  unfit  for  use. 
When  oil  is  filtered  and  continually  used  it  should  be  all 
mineral. 

The  ideal  oil  is  one  that  can  be  used  in  a  hot  room  in 
summer  and  will  feed  in  exposed  places  in  winter.  This 
kind  is  seldom  found.  There  are  many  good  oils  that  will 
feed  in  winter  that  become  so  light  by  warmth  that  they 
are  valueless  in  summer  for  heavy  work,  and  the  heavy 
oil  that  is  necessary  for  summer  use  will  not  feed  in  win- 
ter. There  are  a  few  oils  that  can  be  used  at  any  time. 

With  modern  systems  of  catching  oil  it  is  possible  to 
keep  a  continuous  stream  of  oil  on  the  bearings,  pipe  the 
drain  to  an  oil  filter,  raise  the  oil  to  a  distributing  tank 
and  pipe  from  there  to  the  different  journals.  Where 
air  pressure  is  at  hand  it  makes  a  cheap  and  efficient  meth- 
od of  raising  the  oil.  There  are  many  elaborate  systems 
for  doing  this.  A  simple  way  is  to  let  the  oil  run  into  a 
tank  capable  of  holding  sufficient  pressure 

Here  the  pipe  to  take  out  the  oil  extends  to  nearly 
the  bottom  of  tank  and  the  air  inlet  opens  at  the  top. 
When  air  is  turned  on,  the  pressure  on  top  of  the  oil  forces 
it  to  a  height  due  to  the  pressure.  There  should  be  two 
tanks,  so  that  the  drain  can  be  kept  constant.  The  filter 
can  be  below  or  above  the  engine,  as  most  convenient. 
Where  air  pressure  is  not  convenient,  a  small  pump  can 
be  used  and  an  attachment  made  to  some  part  of  engine. 

214 


About  Grease. 

When  a  man  is  obliged  to  use  an  oil  that  thickens  by 
cold  he  will  need  to  be  careful  of  his  drain  pipes.  These 
pipes  should  not  be  less  than  i  inch  in  diameter:-.  In  one 
case  a  drain  I  inch  in  diameter  that  was  laid  on  the  floor 
alongside  the  wheel  pit  the  oil  would  not  drain  even  when 
the  engine-room  was  warm.  It  was  finally  seen  that  the 
air  set  in  motion  by  the  wheel  was  sufficiently  cool  to  chill 
the  pipe,  and  it  became  necessary  to  put  a  box  around  the 
pipe  and  a  j^-inch  steam  pipe  alongside  the  drain  pipe. 

Some  engineers  prefer  grease  because  it  is  cleaner. 
A  few  claim  it  is  cheaper,  but  its  advantage  over  oil  is 
problematical.  Grease  is  made  from  horse  oil ;  a  better 
grease  is  made  from  mule  oil.  Either  has  a  terribly  rank 
smell,  and  to  overcome  this  they  are  flavored  with  oil  of 
mervane,  which  drowns  the  bad  smell  and  gives  the 
grease  the  flavor  of  a  peach  pit. 

To  be  of  value  oil  must  be  manufactured  from  good 
stock  and  by  those  that  understand  the  business.  "A  first- 
class  cylinder  stock  just  mixed  with  a  lighter  oil  will  not 
give  the  results  required  unless  it  be  put  together  in 
proper  form. 

A  good  test  for  oil  is  to  make  a  bearing  for  the 
largest  shaft  available  and  line  it  with  babbitt  metal.  On 
top  of  this  bearing  put  a  hole  for  an  oil  cup  and  another 
hole  extending  through  top  and  nearly  through  the  bab- 
bitt, so  that  it  will  come  to  within  3-16  inch  of  the  shaft. 
This  is  for  a  thermometer.  Arrange  a  clamp  of  wood 
or  iron  like  Fig.  98,  with  a  weight  at  the  end  of  the  lever. 
When  oil  is  to  be  tried,  set  the  oil  to  feeding  and  tighten 
bolts  so  as  to  just  balance  the  weight.  The  oil  should 
have  a  determined  length  of  time  to  flow,  say  one-half 
hour  or  one  hour.  Several  trials  should  be  made  with  a 


215 


Testing  Oil. 

standard  oil,  so  as  to  be  accustomed  to  its  use,  before  try- 
ing oil  for  comparison. 

A  heavy  oil  should  not  be  fed  as  many  drops  per  min- 
ute as  a  light  oil,  as  there  is  more  oil  in  a  drop  of  the 
heavy  than  in  the  light. 

After  becoming  accustomed  to  the  machine  so  as  to 
feed  the  proper  amount,  the  thermometer  will  indicate 
which  has  the  best  lubricating  properties. 

A  straight,  clean  mineral  oil  can  be  filtered  continu- 
ously, and  care  should  be  used  to  save  all  oil  by  proper 


1THERMOMETER 


Fig.   98.    Oil  testing  device. 


guards  and  pans,  and  but  a  small  amount  of  new  oil  need 
be  used.  With  a  good  filter,  filtered  oil  will  cool  a  hot 
journal  more  quickly  than  new  oil. 

For  shafting,  ring  oiling  bearings  should  be  used, 
and  the  rings  should  be  solid  and  not  less  than  */2  inch  in 
width.  Rings  made  from  half-round  material,  bent  into 
a  circle  and  the  ends  not  closed  together  securely  are  liable 
to  get  out  of  shape,  the  ends  catch  and  the  feed  be  stopped. 

216 


Oiling   Bearings. 

It  is  not  a  bad  idea  to  have  pockets  on  the  outside  of 
the  ring,  but  these  pockets  should  be  smooth  on  the  out- 
side and  should  not  project  beyond  a  true  circle,  as  oth- 
erwise they  might  catch  and  stop  the  ring. 

The  thrust  rings  should  aways  be  in  the  center  of 
the  bearing  and  the  groove  should  be  lined  with  babbitt 
At  each  end  of  bearing  should  be  a  small  collar  turned  to 
a  sharp  edge.  This  will  throw  off  all  oil  and  prevent  it 
running  along  the  shaft.  The  babbitt  wipers  usually  used 
for  this  purpose  do  not  do  the  work  satisfactorily,  and 
there  is  a  waste  of  oil  as  well  as  an  untidy  looking  shaft 
and  floor. 

The  oil  cellars  should  be  of  ample  size.  For  a  5-inch 
shaft,  they  should  be  not  less  than  2  quarts  capacity,  and 
would  be  still  better  if  they  held  a  gallon. 

A  few  engine  builders  are  getting  to  building  ring 
or  chain  oiling  bearings  for  the  engine  shaft.  This,  when 
universal,  will  be  a  great  improvement. 

For  oiling  crosshead  pins  the  telescope  oiling  device 
is  a  neat  thing,  as  it  places  the  oil  cup  where  it  can  be 
filled  and  adjusted  at  any  time,  and  there  is  not  the  spat- 
tering of  oil  as  with  the  wiper.  It  also  works  nicely  on 
the  eccentrics. 


217 


Cleaning. 

T    T    T 

Should  any  part  of  the  machinery  get  covered  with 
gum,  use  a  strong  solution  of  potash.  This  can  be  ap- 
plied with  a  piece  of  waste  wrapped  around  a  stick.  If 
the  metal  is  cold  it  will  not  be  discolored,  but  if  hot,  the 
metal  will  be  blue.  A  strong  ammonia  will  do  the  same 
thing.  The  work  needs  polishing  afterwards  in  either 
case.  For  this  purpose,  when  cold,  get  a  pepper  box  and 
use  Rosedale  cement  on  a  wet  rag.  The  moisture  soon 
dries  out,  and  the  dry  cement  can  be  easily  wiped  off, 
leaving  the  work  thoroughly  clean.  As  the  metal  is  clean 
it  will  rust  quickly  should  it  be  exposed  to  dampness. 

When  cleaning  an  engine,  after  it  is  wiped  as  clean 
as  possible  with  waste,  a  little  of  this  dry  cement  on  a 
piece  of  waste  will  remove  the  last  vestige  of  oil  and 
leave  the  work  clean  and  bright.  For  this  latter  work 
rotten  stone  is  better.  Use  care  not  to  get  any  of  either 
on  the  bearings. 

Some  engineers  like  their  bright  work  burnished. 
Those  who  have  the  time  and  inclination  can  do  this  as 
follows :  If  the  finish  on  the  engine  is  rough,  use  coarse 
emery  cloth  to  bring  the  surface  down  level  and  finish 
with  fine.  Take  a  drill  rod  and  heat  it  to  a  mild  cherry 

218  ' 


Cleaning  Solutions. 


red  and  dip  it  in  water.  Do  not  draw  the  temper.  Polish 
the  rod  with  the  fine  emery  and  then  draw  the  rod  at  right 
angle  over  the  work,  using  considerable  pressureV  When 
the  engine  is  wiped,  use  a  fine  powder  like  rotten  stone. 
Be  careful  about  the  bearings. 

For  cleaning  the  brasses  around  the  pins,  rub  with 
waste  until  bright.  This  requires  some  time  at  first. 
After  they  are  once  bright  it  is  easy  to  keep  them  so. 

Oil  is  good  to  clean  off  fresh  tarnish,  and  if  the 
oil  is  wiped  off  every  day  and  then  a  piece  of  clean  waste 
used  to  wipe  dry  and  clean,  the  brass  can  be  made  to 
shine  all  the  time,  without  the  use  of  any  powder  or 
cleaner,  and  no  harm  done  to  the  pins.  Brass  oil  cups 
can  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

In  the  days  when  the  dome,  sand  box  and  wagon  top 
of  a  locomotive  was  covered  with  brass,  as  a  general 
thing  the  firemen  had  nothing  but  Rosedale  cement  to 
clean  with.  This  was  put  on  with  oil  to  scour  the  tar- 
nish off  and  then  the  polishing  was  done  with  dry 
cement. 

The  firemen  learned  that  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
would  remove  the  tarnish  and  then  the  scouring  was 
easy.  Some  firemen  used  to  get  spermaceatic  candles, 
rub  the  brass  over  and  let  it  stand  a  few  hours,  or  over 
night,  when  it  could  be  wiped  off  and  the  brass  was  clean. 

Since  that  time  a  number  of  polishing  pastes  have 
come  into  use.  They  require  but  little  labor,  leave  the 
brass  a  nice  color,  and  are  also  good  to  clean  the  hot 
ironwork.  Tripoli  is  one  of  the  best. 

Paint  work  should  be  wiped  clean  every  day,  paying 
particular  attention  to  the  corners.  An  engineer's  thor- 
oughness can  be  told  by  looking  at  the  corners.  On  work 
that  has  not  been  cleaned  for  a  few  days,  and  also  on 

219 


Leaving  a  Film  of  Oil. 

work  where  the  varnish  is  getting  thin,  take  a  piece  of 
waste,  get  it  wet  through  and  squeeze  out  most  of  the 
water  and  put  on  some  engine  oil,  about  the  same  quan- 
tity as  there  is  water.  Wipe  the  work  over  with  this. 
In  the  case  of  considerable  dirt,  it  should  be  rubbed  until 
thoroughly  clean.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  wipe  off  after- 
wards with  clean  waste,  especially  if  the  surface  was 
dirty.  This  leaves  just  a  very  thin  film  of  oil,  the  paint 
is  clean  and  the  work  looks  nearly  like  new  varnish 
work.  This  is  a  neat  way  of  caring  for  work  that  is 
exposed  to  the  weather. 


220 


Notes,  Rules  and  Tables. 

V    T    T 

One  H.  P.  is  33,000  pounds  raised  one  foot  high  in 
one  minute,  or  33,000  foot  pounds  per  minute. 

A  heat  unit  or  H.  U.  or  British  thermal  unit  or  B. 
T.  U.  is  the  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water 
at  39.1°  one  degree. 

According  to  Joule's  experiments  i  heat  unit  was 
equal  to  772  foot  pounds,  but  further  experiments  have 
demonstrated  that  one  heat  unit  is  equal  to  778  foot 
pounds,  33,000  foot  pounds  per  minute  divided  by  778  = 
42.62  heat  units  per  H.  P.  per  minute,  or  42.62  X  60  = 
2557.20  heat  units  per  hour. 

A  pound  of  carbon  contains  14,500  H.  U.  A  pound 
of  coal  having  10%  of  ash  will  have  remaining  13,050 
H.  U. 

A  good  boiler  with  a  good  fireman  should  get  75% 
of  this  into  steam,  which  allows  8%  for  radiation  and 
losses  from  air  leaks,  etc.,  and  17%  loss  of  heat  in  gases 
going  up  the  chimney,  which  leaves  9787.5  H.  U.  in 
steam  per  pound  coal.  Of  this,  2257.20  is  converted  into 
work,  the  remainder,  or  7230.30,  going  out  in  the  exhaust. 

This  is  providing  that  I  pound  coal  produces  I  H.  P. 
If  it  requires  2  pounds,  then  the  total  H.  U.  will  be 

221 


Keep  the  Boiler  Clean. 

9787.5  X  2  =  19575  —  2557-2  =  17017-8  H.  U.  going 
out  in  the  exhaust. 

As  the  H.  U.  in  i  pound  coal  with  10%  of  ash  is 
13050,  this  number  divided  by  2557.20  =  5.1  H.  P.  that 
would  be  obtained  with  one  pound  coal,  if  all  the  heat 
could  be  converted  into  work,  or  if  the  heat  put  into 
steam,  9787.5  H.  U.  could  be  converted  into  work,  it 
would  make 


-  =  3.86  H.  P.  per  pound  coal. 
2557-2 

The  efficiency  of  the  boiler  will  depend  upon  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  kept  clean,  the  tightness  of  its 
setting  in  preventing  air  leaks,  the  thinness  of  the  heating 
surface,  the  draft  and  the  circulation. 

The  latter  point  is  very  important.  The  greater 
the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  water  within 
the  boiler  and  the  fire  the  more  rapid  the  absorption  of 
heat.  The  more  rapid  the  water  flows  over  the  heating 
surface  bringing  fresh  water  into  contact,  the  greater 
will  be  this  difference,  and  the  more  rapid  the  move- 
ment of  the  water  the  easier  will  be  the  disengagement 
of  the  steam. 

Wrought  iron  expands  1-150000  of  an  inch  per  inch 
for  each  degree. 

A  pipe  300  feet  long  and  150  Ibs.  pressure  would 
expand  as  follows  :  300  ft.  is  3600  inches.  Temperature 
of  room  80°.  Temperature  of  steam  at  150  Ibs.  pressure 
366°  less  the  80°  =  286°  difference  in  temperature  of 

3600  X  286 

pipe.     —  —=6.86  inches  the  pipe  would  expand. 

150000 

222 


Standards  of  Pressure. 

All  pressures  are  measured  or  standardized  by  the 
weight  of  mercury. 

The  atmosphere  sustains  mercury  30"  high. 

One  cubic  inch  of  mercury  weighs  .49  of  a  pound. 

30  X  49  =  J47- 

Weight  of  water. 

A  pressure  of  one  pound  is  exerted  per  square  inch 
by  a  column  of  water  2.3093'  high,  and  one  atmosphere, 
or  14.7  pounds,  by  a  column  33.947'  high. 

The  pressure  multiplied  by  2.3093  will  give  the 
height  of  a  column  of  water  due  to  that  pressure. 

A  column  i'  high  has  a  pressure  of  .433  pounds. 
Height,  multiplied  by  .433  equals  the  pressure. 

The  efficiency  of  an  engine  depends  upon  the  small 
amount  of  heat  required  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  work. 

The  engine  that  has  the  lowest  terminal  pressure 
in  proportion  to  the  mean  effective  pressure  will  require 
the  least  heat,  or,  put  in  another  way,  the  lowest  amount 
of  heat  will  go  out  in  the  exhaust. 

An  engine  that  requires  a  large  amount  of  com- 
pression to  secure  quiet  running  will  have  a  rounded  cut- 
off corner  on  the  diagram,  and  this,  together  with  the 
compression,  will  make  the  terminal  pressure  higher. 

An  engine  having  a  slow  piston  speed  will  condense 
a  large  amount  of  steam  when  it  enters  the  Cylinder,  and 
this  will  be  re-evaporated  towards  the  end,  bringing  the 
terminal  pressure  high. 

Too  slow  piston  speed  will  give  too  much  time  for 
a  cylinder  to  cool  off  and  cause  cylinder  condensation, 
with  consequent  re-evaporation. 

Should  we  wish  to  get  a  high  piston  speed  we  have 
the  problem  of  rotation  speed  to  contend  with. 

To  get  a  piston  speed  of  800'  per  minute  we  can 

223 


About  Clearance. 

build  an  engine  with  6'  stroke  and  66  revolutions.  This 
number  of  revolutions  will  require  no  more  compression 
than  is  necessary  to  lap  the  exhaust  valves  to  have  them 
seated  properly  when  the  steam  valves  open,  the  indicator 
card  will  show  nearly  square  corners  all  around,  which 
will  be  the  theoretic  and  practical  card  for  economy. 

Should  we  conclude  that  this  stroke  is  too  long,  we 
can  divide  it  by  4,  making  it  18"  stroke  and  a  rotative 
speed  of  266  revolutions.  The  piston  speed  is  the  same, 
but  the  compression  required  will  increase  as  the  square 
of  the  number  of  the  revolutions,  the  card  from  the 
engine  will  have  round  corners  and  the  terminal  pressure 
will  be  higher. 

Clearance  plays  an  important  part. 

Clearance  is  that  portion  that  exists  between  the 
piston  and  cylinder  head,  between  the  valves  and  cylinder 
in  the  steam  parts  and  in  any  depressions  in  the  piston 
or  heads. 

The  clearance  spaces  are  filled  with  steam  at  each 
stroke  and  are  emptied,  doing  only  the  work  that  the 
steam  in  them  expands,  and  are  finally  emptied,  the  unex- 
panded  portion  doing  no  work.  The  effect  is  to  increase 
the  terminal  pressure. 

The  clearance  spaces  are  filled  and  emptied  at  each 
stroke. 

The  shorter  the  stroke,  the  greater  the  percentage 
of  clearance. 

The  nearer  the  valve  is  to  the  cylinder,  and  the 
shorter  and  smaller  the  port,  provided  it  is  of  ample  area 
for  the  passage  of  the  steam,  the  less  will  be  the  clear- 
ance, which  is  the  reason  for  the  four-valve  engine. 

The  quicker  the  cut-off  valve  closes,  the  sharper 
will  be  the  cut-off  and  the  lower  will  be  the  terminal 

224 


Compression — Lap — Lead. 

pressure. 

The  terminal  pressure  will  be  the  lowest  in  pro- 
portion to  the  mean  effective  pressure  when  the  engine 
is  cutting  off  at  about  Y^  stroke,  so  that  an  engine  loaded 
to  that  amount  will  be  at  its  most  economical  load. 

Compression  is  the  vapor  enclosed  within  the  cylin- 
der by  the  closing  of  the  exhaust  valve  before  the  crank 
reaches  the  center. 

Its  object  is  to  absorb  the  inertia  of  the  moving 
parts  gradually  and  allow  them  to  come  to  a  state  of 
rest  without  jar. 

Lap  of  a  valve  is  the  amount  that  the  valve  travels 
beyond  the  port  more  than  is  necessary  to  cover  the 
same.  Its  office  is  to  cover  the  port,  or  space  beyond, 
sufficiently  to  insure  tightness,  and  in  a  steam  valve  to 
provide  for  cutting  off  the  steam. 

In  an  exhaust  valve,  to  give  compression. 

Lead  is  the  amount  the  valve  opens  before  the 
crank  reaches  the  center. 

Pre-release  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  exhaust  valve 
and  is  the  same  thing  as  lead  on  the  steam  valve. 

An  eccentric  is  a  wheel  placed  off  the  center,  and  is 
used  to  be  placed  on  a  shaft  to  give  motion  to  the 
valves  of  an  engine. 

The  distance  it  will  move  a  rod  or  valve  is  the 
extreme  movement  between  the  distance  of  its  circum- 
ference on  both  sides  of  the  shaft,  and  is  termed  the 
throw  of  the  eccentric. 

The  travel  of  the  valve  is  the  total  distance  the 
valve  moves. 

If  the  eccentric  rod  be  attached  direct  to  valve  the 
throw  of  eccentric  and  travel  of  valve  will  be  the  same. 

The  travel  of  the  valve  should  be  the  width  of  the 

225 


Selecting  Size  of  Feed  Pump. 

port  and  the  lap. 

When  it  is  desired  to  give  a  greater  travel  of  the 
valve  than  the  throw  of  the  eccentric,  a  rocker  arm  is 
placed  between,  and  by  attaching  the  valve  rod  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  center  than  the  eccentric  rod 
the  valve  travel  is  lengthened. 

In  the  Corliss  type,  the  rapidity  of  opening  and  clos- 
ing the  valves  is  increased  by  the  use  of  a  wrist  plate. 

To  determine  the  size  of  pump  for  a  set  of  boilers. 

A  boiler  H.P.  is  30  pounds  of  water  evaporated  per 
hour,  but  it  should  be  capable  of  evaporating  45  if  a  call 
for  that  should  arise. 

Find  the  total  amount  that  would  be  evaporated 
by  the  boiler,  or  set  of  boilers,  per  hour,  and  divide  by 
60,  which  gives  the  amount  per  minute.  Divide  this 
by  8.33,  which  reduces  the  pounds  to  gallons.  Multiply 
this  by  231  will  give  the  amount  in  cubic  inches. 

A  pump  should  not  exceed  a  piston  speed  of  100'  per 
minute.  Multiplying  100  X  12  =  1200"  piston  speed. 
Divide  the  cubic  inches  by  1200  gives  the  area  of 
piston.  To  get  the  diameter  extract  the  square  root  or 
find  the  diameter  from  a  table  of  areas. 

If  we  have  1000  H.P.  and  allow  for  a  possible  evap- 
oration of  45  pounds  per  H.P.,   1000   X   45  =  45000 
45000  750 

pounds. =  750  pounds  per  minute. =  90 

60  8.33 

20790 

gallons.     90  X  231   =  20790  cubic  in.  -  =   17.2 

1 200 
area  of  piston,  or  5"  diam. 

There  should  be  at  least  10%  allowed  for  slip  and 
for  duplex  pump  it  would  not  be  unwise  to  allow  20%: 

To  determine  how  much  water  a  pump  will  deliver, 

226 


"Powers"  Rule  for  Pumps. 


multiply  the  area  of  the  cylinder  in  inches  by  the  stroke 
in  inches  and  by  the  number  of  strokes  per  minute. 
This  gives  the  cubic  inch  capacity.  Divide  this^by  231 
gives  the  number  of  gallons.  Gallons  multiplied  by  8.33 
equals  the  pounds,  and  by  60  gives  the  pounds  per  hour. 
Deduct  the  percentage  for  slip. 

To  determine  the  power,  multiply  the  area  by  the 
pressure  of  water  and  the  speed  of  the  piston,  allow 
20%  for  friction,  etc.,  and  divide  by  330x30. 

"Power"  gives  the  rule.  Multiply  the  number  of 
gallons  by  15  times  the  elevation  and  divide  by  33000 
will  give  the  H.P. 

To  find  the  H.P.  of  a  boiler  from  the  heating  sur- 
face, allow  12  square  feet  of  heating  surface  for  a 
tubular  boiler  and  10  square  feet  for  a  water  tube. 

In  a  recent  catalog  of  a  well-known  maker  of  engineer- 
ing specialties  the  writer  noticed  the  following  approxi- 
mate rules  for  calculating  the  horse-power  of  various 
kinds  of  boilers.  The  rules  are  intended  for  use  in  deter- 
mining the  proper  sizes  of  injectors  and  other  apparatus 
when  the  exact  dimensions  or  heating  surface  of  the  boil- 
er is  unknown  or  hard  to  obtain : 

Kind  H.  P. 

Horizontal  Tubular  =  Dia.2  X  Length  -j-  5 

•  Vertical  =  Dia.2  X  Height  -4-  4 

Flue  Boilers =  Dia.    X  Length  -r-  3 

Locomotive  Type.  .  =  Dia.  of  Waist2  X 

Length  over  all  -i-  6. 
All  dimensions  to  be  in  feet. 

In  the  first  and  third  cases  the  length  is  the  length  of 
the  tubes  or  that  of  a  "flush-head"  boiler  and  does  not 
include  the  extended  smoke-box.  In  the  second  case,  the 
height  is  that  of  a  plain  vertical  boiler  in  which  the  upper 
part  of  the  tubes  is  above  the  water  line ;  it  is  not  the 

227 


Boiler  Ratings. 

height  of  a  boiler  with  submerged  tubes. 

The  extreme  simplicity  of  the  rules  aroused  curiosity 
as  to  their  accuracy  and  comparisons  were  made  between 
manufacturers'  ratings  and  ratings  calculated  by  the 
formulas  above.  The  results  are  given  below.  They 
agree  very  closely,  except  in  a  few  of  the  larger  sizes  of 
tubular  boilers,  where  the  calculated  rating  falls  below 
that  of  the  manufacturer.  And  in  these  sizes  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  heating  surface  per  horse-power  is  less 
than  in  the  smaller  sizes  where  the  two  ratings  practically 
agree. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  the  ratings  of  other  manufac- 
turers would  show  a  better  or  worse  agreement.  In  any 
event,  the  rules  prove  to  be  valuable  for  just  what  is  in- 
tended and  will  save  considerable  trouble  in  measuring 
up  and  calculating  the  power  of  existing  boilers  when 
ordering  injectors,  feed  pumps,  and  the  like. 

The  ratio  of  grate  surface  to  heating  surface  varies 
from  i  to  40,  to  i  to  60.  At  3  pounds  of  coal  per  H.P. 
and  ratio,  i  to  40,  the  amount  of  coal  burned  per  square 
foot  of  grate  will  be  12  pounds,  while  with  a  ratio  of  i  to 
60  the  consumption  will  be  19  pounds  coal  per  square 
foot  of  grate. 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  shell  boiler,  multiply  the 
area  of  the  head  in  inches,  less  the  area  of  all  the  tubes 
in  inches  by  the  length  of  the  shell  in  inches.  This  gives 
the  total  capacity  of  the  boiler.  From  this  we  must 
substract  that  portion  not  filled,  or  the  segment  of  the 
circle. 

There  are  a  number  of  short  rules  that  are  only 
approximate. 

To  find  the  area  of  the  segment  of  a  circle,  we  first 
find  the  area  of  sector  of  a  circle. 

228 


Calculating  Steam  Room. 

The  length  of  the  arc  of  a  circle — chord  of  whole 
arc  is  8  times  the  chord  of  half  the  arc,  and  taking  y$  of 
the  remainder. 

The  area  of  the  sector  of  a  circle  equals  length  of 
arc  X  y*  the  radius. 

Area  of  segment  of  circle — area  of  sector  of  circle — 
area  of  triangle  when  segment  is  less  than  a  semi-  circle. 

A  boiler  72"  diameter  filled  to  within  18"  of  top 
will  have  the  dimensions  of  cut,  the  radius  being  36", 
the  chord  of  whole  arc  63"  and  chord  of  half  the  arc 


Fig.  99.    Boiler  calculations. 

36".     The  two  sides  of  triangular  arc  36"  and  base  63. 

From  the  above  rule. 

8  X  36  —  63  =  225.  One-third  of  this  is  75  X  18 
(l/2  the  radius  of  the  circle)  =  1350. 

The  area  of  the  triangle  is  found  by  adding  the 
three  sides  together  and  dividing  by  2.  From  the  half 
sum  subtract  each  side  separately;  multiply  the  half 
sum  and  the  three  remainders  continuously  together; 
take  the  square  root  of  the  product. 

135 
The  three  sides,  36,  36,  63.     36  +  36  +  63  = 


229 


How  it  is  Figured. 

=  67.5  and  67.5  —  36  =  31.5;  67.5  —  63  =  4.5.  And 
31.5  X  67.5  X  3T-5  X  4-5  =  301388  and  the  square  root 
549-  I35°  —  549  =  80 1  square  inches,  area  of  segment. 

Another  short  method  is  to  take  the  chord  of  the 
arc  and  versed  sine,  or  the  rise  only. 

To  Yz  of  the  product  of  the  chord  A.  B.  and  rise 
C.  D.  of  the  segment,  add  the  cube  of  the  rise,  divided 
by  twice  the  chord;  the  remainder  is  the  area  nearly. 
63  X   18  =   1134  X   %  =  756. 

5832 

18  X  18  X  18  =  5832.          63  X  2  =  125.        =  46 

126 
756  +  46  =  802  sq.  in.  area. 

To  get  at  the  principle  requires  use  of  the  higher 
mathematics. 

With  a  copy  of  Trautwine's  tables  the  result  can  be 
obtained  accurately  with  but  few  figures. 

Divide  the  rise  by  diameter  of  circle.  In  the  table 
find  a  number  opposite  the  quotient  and  multiply  this 
number  by  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

18 

—  =  .25.     In  the  table  opposite.     '25  is  the  number 

72 

•T53546.  72  squared  =  5184.  .153546  X  5l84  = 
795.98  area.  This  is  the  accurate  area. 

From  the  same  arc  can  be  found  the  radius  of  a 
circle. 

Add  the  square  of  half  the  chord  A.  B.  to  the 
square  of  the  rise  C.  D.  and  divide  by  twice  the  rise, 
gives  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

This  applies  to  a  railroad  curve  or  the  arc  of  a 
pulley. 

Should  the  occasion  arise,  where  the  distance  from 
center  to  circumference  cannot  be  found,  stretch  a  line 

230 


Area  of  Tubes. 

across  the  corcumference  at  any  point  and  measure  from 
center  of  line  to  circumference. 

The  usual  rule  to  apply  for  boiler  braces  is  to  allow 
2"  space  around  the  head  and  tubes  that  do  not  need 
bracing. 

To  find  the  area  for  the  braces,  find  the  area  of 
segment  of  the  space  above  the  tubes  and  subtract  the  2". 


r\ 

/7^\ 

j 

\       / 

p  ^N\ 

S*  "\ 
/  \ 

/  k 

V          \v                        / 

\  /  J 

Fig.  100.    Showing  area  of  inches. 


Fig.  ioi. 


The  area  of  a  circle  is  .7854  of  the  square  of  the 
diameter.  Fig.  ioi. 

Doubling  the  diameter  increases  the  area  four  times, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  100. 


231 


Real    Boiler   Economy. 

V    V    T 

When  filling  a  boiler  or  emptying  it  without  pressure, 
there  should  be  a  vent.  Mr.  P.  H.  Bullock  puts  a  check 
in  a  vertical  pipe  Y^  inch  in  diameter,  the  check  opening 
in.  When  there  is  no  pressure,  the  check  is  always  open 
and  prevents  a  vacuum  in  the  boiler  when  water  is  run- 
ning out,  and  will  let  air  out  when  water  is  running  in. 
It  will  close  itself  when 'steam  is  raised  to  about  2  pounds. 

When  economy,  ease  of  taking  care,  first  cost,  etc., 
are  concerned,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  beat  a  tubular 
boiler.  When  it  comes  to  space  occupied,  long  life,  high 
pressure  and  large  units,  it  is  of  necessity  supplanted  by 
the  water  tube.  The  water  tube,  correctly  designed  and 
honestly  built,  is  also  much  safer  than  the  tubular. 

Where  the  tubes  are  put  into  manifolds,  or  headers, 
and  suspended  from  the  drums  by  short  tubes,  these  short 
tubes  should  be  two  sizes  heavier  than  the  tubes  in  boiler. 

For  instance,  a  4-inch  tube  is  made  from  No.  10 
metal,  and  the  short  tubes  should  be  No.  8.  All  of  them 
should  be  full  size  in  the  thinnest  part,  and  should  be 
made  from  wrought  iron. 

Grates  under  a  boiler  should  last  as  long  as  the 
boiler,  and  this  can  only  be  done  by  keeping  them  cool. 

When  a  fire  is  cleaned  by  shutting  the  ash  pit  doors 
the  grates  become  red  hot.  This  will  be  more  effectually 
done  if  the  ash  and  small  coal  be  left  in  the  ash  pit,  espe- 
cially at  night.  When  iron  is  heated  to  a  red  heat  the 
grain  becomes  coarser  under  expansion  and  does  not 
return  to  its  original  size  when  cooled.  This  process  con- 
tinued causes  the  iron  to  swell  in  places  where  the  heat 

232 


About  Grate  Bars. 

has  been  most  intense  and  distortion  occurs,  bringing 
some  portion  up  into  the  fire  and  the  grates  then  go 
pretty  fast. 

It  is  the  better  plan  to  have  the  ash  pit  made  with  a 
place  to  hold  water  8"  to  10"  deep  and  keep  water  in  it 
during  the  time  there  is  fire  on  the  grate. 


Fig.  102.    Forms  of  grate  bars. 

The  ash  pit  doors  should  not  be  closed  so  long  as 
there  is  fire  on  the  grates,  and  the  regulation  should  all 
be  done  by  damper  in  the  flues. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  take  the  ash  pit  doors 
off  when  the  firemen  persist  in  closing  them. 

There  are  numerous  forms  of  grate  bars,  but  the 
form  shown  at  A,  Fig.  102,  will  give  the  best  distribution 
of  air,  while  that  at  B  will  come  next.  Either  of  these 
types  can  be  made  lighter,  and  a  furnace  full  will  cost  less 
than  with  a  straight  bar. 

Bars  set  with  the  rear  end  raised  or  lowered  will  give 
better  results  than  if  placed  level. 

Shaking  grates  are  of  service  only  for  relieving  the 
finer  ash,  while  they  are  valueless  for  removing  clinker 
and  the  coarser  ash.  The  better  grate  is  that  made  after 
the  plan  of  A  and  put  in  with  front  and  rear  sections, 
so  that  the  front  or  rear  can  be  dumped  separately. 

A  soft  patch  for  a  boiler  is  a  patch  made  to  fit,  and 
either  lead  putty  with  iron  borings  or  some  form  of 
sheet  packing  put  under  to  make  a  joint  after  the  man- 
ner of  making  a  flange  joint,  and  the  patch  is  screwed 
up  with  counter-sunk  bolts.  Generally  the  piece  of  boiler 

233 


Boiler  Patches. 

is  not  cut,  which  leaves  two  thicknesses  of  iron,  so  that 
that  nearest  the  fire,  not  being  protected  by  water,  is 
burned. 

A  hard  patch  is  a  patch  where  the  iron  is  cut  out  of 
the  boiler,  a  piece  fitted  to  cover  it,  holes  drilled  and 
riveted  on,  chipped  and  caulked  and  made  tight. 

The  soft  patch  is  liable  to  get  to  leaking  and  is  dan- 
gerous. The  hard  patch  is  safe,  although  over  the  fire 
it  would  be  better  to  put  in  a  new  fire  sheet  entire  to 
avoid  a  double  thickness  and  rivets  where  the  fire  is 
intense. 

Drilled  holes  are  better  than  punched,  because  the 
fiber  of  the  iron  is  not  disturbed  as  in  punching. 

Laying  out  Gaskets. 

To  lay  out  a  gasket  for  the  regular  shaped  manhole 
or  handhole,  find  the  length  of  the  plate  and  divide  it  by 
three.  On  the  line  A  B  and  with  ^3  as  radius  and  with 
centers  at  C  and  D  lay  off  the  two  circles. 

Should  the  length  be  15",  set  the  dividers  at  5"  and 
lay  off  the  two  circles.  Then  with  the  center  at  E  lay  off 
the  arc  G,  and  with  the  center  at  the  intersection  of  the 
circles  at  F  lay  off  the  arc  H.  With  the  same  centers  the 
outside  circle  can  be  laid  out.  This  will  make  a  regular 
n"xi5"  gasket. 

There  will  sometimes  be  found  a  plate,  where,  instead 
of  the  small  arcs  G.  and  H,  there  will  be  a  straight  line 
drawn  from  the  same  points. 

Foaming. 

Foaming  is  the  raising  of  the  water  with  the  steam. 
It  is  caused  by  grease  or  dirt  that  prevents  a  free  sep- 
aration of  the  steam.  In  one  case  where  the  engineer 

234 


Foaming  Boilers. 


Laying  out  a  Gasket. 


had  not  kept  his  boiler  clean  there  was  a  large  amount 
of  deposit.  It  became  necessary  to  raise  the  front  end 
three  inches  and  this  changed  the  circulation  within  the 
boiler  and  stirred  up  the  deposit  so  much  as  to  set  up  a 
dangerous  foaming  until  the  boiler  was  cleaned. 

Soap,  or  any  substance  like  an  alkaline  boiler  com- 
pound when  grease  is  present,  salt  water  put  into  fresh 
water,  too  little  steam  room  or  not  sufficient  area  at  top 
of  water,  or  a  strong  draft  of  steam  that  causes  the 
water  to  raise,  will  produce  foaming. 

It  is  dangerous  by  drawing  too  much  water  from 
boiler  and  also  by  getting  water  into  the  engine  which 
washes  off  the  oil  and  may  break  something. 

Boiler  Braces. 

There  are  two  general  forms  of  braces — the  crow- 
foot, where  both  ends  are  riveted  to  the  boiler,  and  the 

235 


Boiler  Braces. 

angle.  In  the  latter  there  are  a  pair  of  angles  riveted  to 
head  the  entire  length,  and  the  braces  are  held  to  the 
angles  with  a  tapered  pin. 


Fig.  104.    Boiler  braces. 


Pumps. 

With  a  non-condensing  engine  exhausting  through 
a  heater  it  is  the  more  economical  to  feed  water  to  boiler 
with  a  power  pump.  With  a  condensing  engine  or  a 
number  of  engines  the  steam  pump  exhausting  through 
a  heater  not  connected  with  the  engines  will  be  the  more 
economical. 

The  amount  of  heat  converted  into  work  in  moving 
the  plungers  will  be  the  same  in  each  case,  and  the  heat 

33000 
at  i  H.  U.  =  778  foot  Ibs.  =  -        -  X  60  =  2557  H.  U. 

778 

per  hour  per  H.  P.  for  driving  pump. 

236 


Steam  Pumps. 

The  main  engine  driving  the  pump  and  using  1^2 
Ibs.  of  coal  per  H.  P.  will,  with  9800  H.  U.  per  lb., 

9800 
4900 

delivered  into  the  steam,  means  that 2557  — 

14,700 

12,443  H.  U.  per  H.  P.  are  loaded  on  to  the  condenser 
and  goes  out  in  the  discharge  and  lost.  If  the  pump  were 
driven  direct  by  steam  there  would  be  the  same  amount 
of  heat  converted  into  work,  and  while  the  amount  of 
steam  required  to  drive  the  pump  would  be  more,  all  the 
waste  heat  going  into  the  heater  would  heat  the  feed 
water  and  all  waste  heat  would  return  to  boiler. 

A  steam  pump  is  elastic  and  can  be  run  at  any  speed 
to  keep  the  feed  regular. 

A  power  pump  runs  at  one  speed  and  must  feed  the 
boiler  too  fast  and  have  the  water  shut  off  a  portion  of 
the  time  or  there  must  be  a  relief  valve  to  waste  water 
through  after  it  has  been  pumped  to  a  high  pressure. 

A  duplex  pump  will  be  easier  on  piping,  etc.,  than 
a  single  pump. 

A  pump  may  give  trouble  from  a  leak  in  suction 
pipe ;  from  a  strainer  becoming  clogged ;  from  the  piston 
packing  leaking ;  from  a  valve  breaking  through,  or  from 
a  portion  of  the  pump  filling  with  air. 

A  leak  in  suction  will  be  known  from  there  being 
larger  quantities  of  air.  A  clogged  strainer  from  there 
not  being  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  to  fill  the  pump. 

An  air  chamber  of  ample  size  should  be  put  in  the 
suction  of  a  pump,  as  shown  in  Fig.  105,  so  that  the  cur- 
rent of  water  will  flow  direct  to  it.  An  air  chamber  put  on 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  is  of  no  value. 

A  check  valve  should  be  put  in  the  discharge  of  a 

237 


Air  Bound  Pumps. 

pump,  and  an  air  or  vent  valve  at  the  top  of  pipe  between 
it  and  the  pump.  This  valve  should  never  be  less  than 
y2  inch,  and  for  large  pumps  much  larger. 

When  a  pump  gets  air-bound  it  can  be  quickly 
relieved.  A  man  tried  to  syphon  spring  water  over  a  hill 
to  his  house,  and  the  water  would  flow  but  a  short  time. 


Fig.  105.    Air  chamber  on  suction  end  of  pump. 

He  then  put  a  chamber  at  the  extreme  high  point  for  the 
accumulation  of  air  with  a  valve  to  shut  the  chamber  off 
from  the  pipe  and  means  to  refill  it  with  water  driving 
out  the  air.  This  helped  matters,  but  did  not  insure  a 
constant  operation.  The  pipe  was  2-inch.  He  took  out 
the  2-inch  on  the  downhill  side  and  put  in  2^2 -inch,  and 
had  no  further  trouble. 

Injectors  should  be  used  where  heaters  are  not  avail- 
able and  are  valuable  on  locomotives,  traction  and  port- 
able engines.  All  of  the  heat  for  driving  them  is 

238 


Injectors. 

returned  to  the  boiler,  but  they  use  live  steam  for  all 
this  work. 

Where  a  heater  can  be  used  they  are  valuable  only 
as  auxiliary  for  a  cheap  substitute  when  the  pump  is 
broken.  It  is  the  better  plan  to  install  two  pumps. 

The  injector  must  have  supply  not  to  exceed  110°. 
Some  will  raise  their  water  by  suction  15',  while  others 
will  raise  it  but  a  short  distance. 

The  principle  reasons  for  their  not  working  is  get- 
ting hot  (as  they  must  be  sufficiently  cool  to  condense 
the  steam).  To  be  sure  of  this,  the  water  supply  must 
not  be  too  warm ;  it  must  be  ample  and  unobstructed,  and 
the  strainer  must  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
anything  that  will  clog  the  small  ports.  The  check 
valves  may  stick,  and  the  inner  tubes  will  wear  large  and 
require  removal.  The  better  plan  is  to  have  the  printed 
directions  of  the  builder  on  hand  if  possible.  Also  do  not 
put  an  ell  or  turn  within  two  feet  in  the  discharge  line. 

A  leaky  piston  can  be  detected  by  the  noise  of  a 
leak  through  both  strokes ;  a  leak  through  one  valve 
by  a  noise  on  one  end.  If  a  pump  is  air  bound  it  can 
be  told  by  opening  the  vent  cock  in  valve  chamber ;  also 
there  will  be  a  jerky  motion  of  the  plunger,  caused  by 
the  pump  cylinder  being  partially  filled  with  air. 

All  pumps  should  have  a  check  and  stop  valve  in 
the  discharge  and  a  vent  not  less  than  y%". 

When  the  pump  gets  air  sufficient  to  cause  trouble 
the  quickest  method  to  get  rid  of  it  is  to  stop  the  pump, 
open  the  vent,  and  as  soon  as  the  water  is  out  the  air 
will  follow.  Leave  the  vent  open  for  a  few  strokes. 

In  the  smaller  sizes  of  duplex  pumps,  where  both 
cylinders  are  cast  together  and  one  plate  extends  over 
both  heads,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  gasket  in  the 

239 


Duplex  Pump  Valves. 

partition  between  the  two  cylinders  gives  out,  allowing 
the  contents  of  one  cylinder  to  blow  through  into  the 
other.  This  may  happen  on  either  end.  A  duplex  pump 
may  sometimes  refuse  to  work  from  improperly  set 
valves. 

To  set  the  valves  of  a  duplex  pump  place  the  pistons 
at  center  of  stroke;  place  the  valves  at  center  of  travel. 
The  valve  stems  have  a  little  play  in  the  valve  and  this 
play  should  also  be  set  central. 

With  a  single  cylinder  pump  it  may  refuse  to  work 
from  the  supplemental  piston  on  top  sticking  from  want 
of  oil  or  from  dirt,  or  when  new  from  the  piston  valve 
expanding  before  the  chest  gets  hot,  or  from  some  of  the 
small  parts  getting  stopped  up. 

When  high  pressures  are  used  and  cold  water, 
medium  hard  rubber  should  be  used  for  water  end. 
When  pumping  hot  water,  hard  valves  should  be  used 
and  the  pump  placed  below  the  supply. 

Heaters. 

Heaters  are  of  different  designs,  one  being  a  coil 
through  which  the  water  passes  the  entire  length,  the 
steam  being  on  the  outside. 

The  claim  for  this  type  is  that  the  water  travels  so 
far,  all  the  time  changing  direction  and  all  of  the  water 
is  exposed  to  the  heat.  With  this  type  there  is  no  reser- 
voir and  no  space  for  deposit  of  sediment. 

Another  type  has  the  steam  passing  through  the 
tubes,  the  water  being  enclosed  in  a  shell  outside  the 
tubes.  In  some  cases  the  tubes  are  expanded  into  two 
heads,  one  of  the  heads  being  constructed  so  as  to  allow 
for  expansion.  In  some  types  the  tubes  are  corrugated, 

240 


Using  Waste  Heat. 

and  in  others  the  tubes  are  bent  into  U  shape  to  allow 
for  expansion. 

This  type  has  a  reservoir  and  a  space  for  deposit  for 
sediment  but  has  the  drawback  where  the  shells  are  made 
from  rolled  metal  that  the  metal  will  pit  at  lower  portion 
of  shell  where  the  water  is  simply  warm  and  no  cir- 
culation. 

In  the  open  type  the  water  is  sprayed  over  and 
brought  in  direct  contact  with  the  steam. 

This  type  requires  watchfulness,  will  get  the  water 
nearly  as  hot  as  the  steam,  will  deposit  a  large  per  cent, 
of  the  impurities  in  the  water;  but  care  is  necessary  all 
of  the  time  to  prevent  the  oil  getting  into  the  boilers. 


Economizers. 

An  economizer  is  composed  of  cast  iron  tubes  forced 
into  headers,  these  headers  connected  together.  Outside 
these  tubes  are  scrapers  being  continually  moved  up  and 
down,  thus  keeping  the  surface  clean  from  the  soot. 
These  economizers  are  placed  in  flue  from  boiler  to 
stack  and  absorb  a  portion  of  the  heat  from  the  flue  gases. 

From  whatever  source  the  feed  water  absorbs  waste 
heat,  for  every  10°  the  economy  in  fuel  will  be  practically 
i%.  A  good  heater  with  sufficient  exhaust  at  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  will  heat  the  feed  water  to  200  to 
210°.  An  economizer  will  add  about  100°  more. 

The  effect  of  an  economizer  in  a  flue  is  to  reduce 
the  temperature  of  the  flue  gases,  and  as  the  tempera- 
ture is  reduced  the  draft  will  be  reduced  so  that  where 
economizers  are  used  the  chimney  should  be  higher. 

241 


Steam  Gauge. 

The  spring  in  a  steam  gauge  is  a  flat  tube  and  is 
constructed  on  the  principle  that  "a  thin  elliptical  metal 
tube  if  bent  into  a  coil  will  seek  to  coil  or  uncoil  itself  as 
subjected  to  external  or  internal  pressure."  A  steam 
gauge  should  have  a  coil,  bend  or  some  provision  to 
retain  water  directly  under  it,  so  that  steam  or  heat  shall 
be  kept  from  the  spring,  as  heat  would  expand  it  and 
show  false. 

The  spring  is  connected  to  pointer  by  lever  and 
gears.  The  spring  should  move  but  a  short  distance,  as 
there  is  a  tendency  for  these  tubes  to  "set"  when  their 
traverse  is  long,  and  when  there  comes  a  permanent  "set" 
a  new  spring  and  dial  is  required. 

Rope  and  Pulleys. 

When  a  rope  is  put  over  one  pulley  the  weight  will 
be  raised  at  the  same  speed  as  the  power  at  the  other  end, 
and  power  and  weight  will  be  equal  except  the  friction. 

When  another  pulley  is  added  the  speed  of  the 
weight  or  resistance  will  be  one-half  that  of  the  power 
applied  and  double  the  weight  can  be  moved  at  ^2  the 
former  speed,  and  for  every  pulley  added  the  speed  will 
be  reduced  and  greater  resistance  overcome.  This  is  the 
"law  of  movable  pulleys."  The  same  law  applies  to  the 
lever  and  wedge. 

Safety  Valves. 

To  find  weight  to  put  on  safety  valve  lever,  let  A 
represent  area  X  pressure;  1  represent  "  length  of  lever 
from  fulcrum  to  center  of  valve ;  L,  length  of  lever  from 
fulcrum  to  weight;  W,  weight. 

242 


Safety  Valve  Calculations. 

aXl 

Then  W  = 

L 

This  rule  does  not  include  the  weight  of  lever  and 
valve  and  would  slightly  overload  the  valve. 

Let  L  =  length  of  lever  from  fulcrum  to  weight. 
L'  =  length  of  lever  from  fulcrum  to  center  of 
valve. 


34-" 


Fig.  106.    Safety  valve  calculations. 

L"  =  length  of  lever  from  fulcrum  to  center  of 

gravity. 

W  =  weight  in  pounds, 
w  =  weight  of  lever, 
w'  =  weight  of  valve, 
a  =  area  of  valve, 
p  =  pressure  of  steam. 

aXp—  (^4^-  +w')  XL' 

1.  Then,  W  =  — 

L 

2.  Weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  cast  iron  is  .2607. 

Cubic  inch  of  wrought  iron,  .2816. 
.  Let  L  =  length  of  lever  from  fulcrum  to  weight  34". 
L'  =  length  of  lever  from  fulcrum  to  center  of 

valve  8". 

L"  =  length  of  lever  from  fulcrum  to  center  of 
gravity  20". 

243 


How  It  Is^Done. 

w  =  weight  of  lever,  10  Ibs. 
w'  =  weight  of  valve,  6  Ibs. 
a  =  area  of  valve,  i2,l/2  Ibs. 
p  =  pressure  in  boiler,  90  Ibs. 
W  =  weight  to  be  found. 

The  center  of  gravity  of  lever  is  the  point  where 
it  would  balance  and  is  near  the  center  depending  upon 
the  amount  of  taper. 

I2j£  X90—  (^p-  +  6)  X8 
Then  - 

34 

200 

10  X  20  — =  25  +  6  =  31 

8 

90 


1080 
45 

1125 


1094 
8 

34)8752(257  Ibs.  weight 
68 


195 
170 

252 

257  J.  W.  HILL. 

244 


Pop  Valves. 

To  change  the  pressure  on  spring  safety  valves, 
known  as  "pop"  valves,  remove  the  lock-up  cap  and 
slacken  check  nut. 

To  increase  the  pressure,  turn  the  compression  to 
the  left,  or  down,  about  one  square  of  the  nut  for  each  five 
pounds  pressure.  Then  secure  the  check  nut  and  let  the 
valve  blow.  Note  if  the  pressure  is  reduced  too  much 
after  the  valve  "pops." 

A  "pop"  valve  is  made  with  the  regular  conical  valve 
and  outside  of  this  is  a  lip  with  sharp  edge  nearly  seating 
on  a  movable  plate.  When  the  valve  commences  to  blow 
a  small  amount  will  pass  out  under  this  lip,  but  as  the 
amount  increases  it  is  retained  by  this  lip  and  the  extra 
pressure  under  the  increased  area  causes  the  valve  to 
"pop"  or  open  fully  at  once. 

From  the  outside  case  is  a  place  to  reach  the  plate, 
or  movable  ring,  generally  by  removing  a  plug.  After 
screwing  down  on  the  valve  and  the  pressure  is  reduced 
too  much,  insert  a  pointed  instrument  and  turn  this  mov- 
able ring  down  three  or  four  notches  and  let  it  blow,  and 
repeat  until  the  seating  is  right.  If  it  seats  quickly  and 
the  pressure  rises  too  much  before  it  "pops,"  screw  the 
ring  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  reduce  the  pressure,  pro- 
ceed in  the  opposite  manner. 


Fly  Wheels. 

In  fly  wheel  rims,  for  a  given  material  there  is  a 
definite  speed  at  which  disruption  will  occur,  regardless 
of  the  amount  of  material  used. 

245 


Fly  Wheel  Problems. 

This  is  expressed  by  the  following  formula : 

V  =  1.6  V—  ^  in  which  V  is  the  velocity  of  rim  in 
feet  per  second  at  which  disruption  will  occur,  w  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  material  used,  and  s  the  tensile 
strength  of  one  square  inch. 

The  formula  means  that  if  we  divide  the  tensile 
strength  of  the  material  by  its  weight  per  cubic  inch, 
extract  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  and  then  multiply 
by  1.6  the  result  will  be  the  speed  in  feet  per  second. 

Instead  of  the  ultimate  strength  let  us  take  the  safe 
strength. 

Cast  iron  in  large  castings  could  be  depended  upon 
for  a  tensile  strength  of  10,000  Ibs.,  and  with  a  factor  of 
safety  of  10  would  give  us  1000  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  The 
weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  cast  iron  is  .26  of  a  lb.,  so  that 
we  have  for  solid  cast  iron  rims  V  =  1.6  V'air 
=  100  feet  per  second. 

This  corresponds  to  1.15  miles  per  minute.  There 
will  probably  be  some  shrinkage  strains,  so  that  it  is  con- 
sidered good  practice  not  to  run  them  faster  than  a  mile 
a  minute. 

With  jointed  rims  and  joints  between  the  arms  it  is 
not  considered  possible  to  make  a  joint  to  exceed  one- 
fourth  the  strength  of  a  solid  rim. 

With  steel  having  a  tensile  strength  of  60,000  Ibs., 
or  a  safe  strength  of  6000  and  weighing  .28  Ibs.  per  cubic 
inch,  we  have  V  =  1.6  V^  =146  feet  per  second,  or 
1.66  miles  per  minute. 

Hard  maple  has  a  tensile  strength  of  10,500  Ibs.  It 
is  made  up  in  segments  so  that  a  factor  of  safety  of  20  is 
taken,  and  the  weight  is  .0283  per  cubic  inch.  V  =  1.6 
V;^  =  1.54  ft.  per  second,  or  1.75  miles  per  minute. 

W.  H.  BOEHM. 
246 


Right  Angle  Triangle. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  determine  a  right  angle  a 
distance  can  be  measured  off  in  one  direction  of  6  feet 
and  another  of  8  feet,  and  from  these  two  points.the  dis- 
tance should  be  10  feet. 


8X8=64 
6X6=36 
64+36 
I/TOO  «  10 

Fig.  107.    Right  angle  triangle. 


The  cut  shows  the  dimensions  and  method  of  finding 
the  third  side.  Multiply  each  of  the  two  sides  by  them- 
selves, add  the  products  together  and  extract  the  square 
root. 

Facts  About  Steam. 

Flow  of  steam  in  pipes  should  not  exceed  100  ft.  per 
second,  or  6000  ft.  per  minute. 

At  sea  level  fresh  water  boils  at  212°.  For  each 
degree  less  estimate  the  elevation  at  550  ft. 

247 


Cylinder  Pressure. 

Discharge  of  steam  through  pipes.     Trial  made  at 
Novelty  Iron  Works.    H.  P.  at  80  Ibs.  steam. 
i"      pipe  140  H.  P. 
IJ4"     "      214      " 


560 

875 


Cylinder  Pressure. 

To  find  average  mean  pressure  in  cylinder  by  cal- 
culation when  cut-off  is  known: 

Divide  initial  pressure  by  ratio  of  expansion  and 
multiply  by  hyperbolic  logarithm  increased  by  i. 

With  loo  pounds  initial  pressure  and  cutting  off  at 
l/4  of  the  stroke,  the  ratio  will  be  4  and  the  hyperbolic 
logarithm  1.386. 
100 
-  =  25  1.386  +  i  =  2.386. 

4 
2.386  X  25  =  59.65  Ibs.,  mean  effective  pressure. 

The  above  does  not  take  account  of  the  loss  from  back 
pressure,  compression,  lowering  of  steam  line  or  rounded 
corner  at  release,  so  that  an  indicator  card  would  show 
a  result  somewhat  less. 

The  following  are  tables  showing  points  of  cutting 
off  at  8ths  and  roths  with  ratio  of  expansion  and  hyper- 
bolic logarithms  :  . 


Point  of  cutting  off |     *     j     f    ]     f    |     £ 


Ratio  of  expansion 8         4 


L  I 

2.66   2 
o  .   780  . 


1. 


f  I  I 

1-33 


Hyperbolic  Logarithms. .  .12.079)1. 38610.9780. 693 0.4700. 285(0. 131 

Point  of  cutting  off TV    j    &   I   fV   I   &   \   &   \   TV   I   A 

Ratio  of  expansion 10       5         3-33   2. 5      1.66  |i. 42   1.25 

Hyperbolic  Logarithms. .  .  2.303  i . 6og|i. 20310. 9 1610.5070. 35 1)0.223 

248 


Mean   Effective  Pressures. 


Another  table  is  often  convenient.  Mean  pressure  in 
cylinder  when  cutting  off  at 

y±  stroke  =  boiler  pressure  X  -597~- 

Yz     "    '=    "         "      x  .670 
H     "     =    "  x  .743 

*/2  "  =          "  "X     .847 

H     "     =    "  x  .919 

2/3        "        =       "  X    -937 

H     "     =    "          "X  .966 

H     "     =    "  x  .992 

Buell  gives  the  rule  for  finding  terminal  pressure  in 
the  cylinder  as :  "The  terminal  pressure  of  steam  in  a 
cylinder  is  the  product  of  the  pressure  at  cut-off  multi- 
plied by  cut-off. 

95  Ibs.  steam  X  .25  cut-off  =  23.75,  terminal  pres- 
sure. 

POINTS   OF   CUTTING   OFF. 


Initial 
Pressure 

1 

i 

i 

i 

I 

i 

f 

I 

10 

3.8 

5.2 

5-9 

6.6 

7-4 

8.4 

9.1 

9.6 

15 

5-7 

7-8 

8.9 

10.4 

ii.  i 

12.7 

13.7 

14.4 

20 

7-6 

10.4 

11.9 

13.6 

14.8 

16.9 

18.3 

19.2 

25 

9-5 

13.0 

14-9 

17.5 

18.5 

21.  1 

22  9 

24.1 

30 

ii.  5 

15-6 

17-9 

20.9 

22.2 

25.4 

27-5 

28.9 

35 

13.4 

18.2 

20.8 

24.4 

25-9 

29.6 

32.1 

33-8 

40 

15-4 

20.8 

23.8 

27.9 

29.6 

33-8 

36.7 

37.5 

45 

17-3 

23.4 

26.8 

31-4 

33-3 

38.1 

41-3 

43-4 

50 

19.2 

26.0 

29.8 

34-9 

37-0 

42  3 

45-9 

48.2 

55 

21.2 

28.7 

32.8 

38.4 

40.8 

46.5 

50.5 

53-7 

60 

23.1 

31.1 

35-7 

41.9 

44-5 

50.7 

55-i 

57-8 

65 

25  o 

33.9 

38.7 

45-4 

48.9 

54-0 

59-7 

62.4 

70 

26.9 

36.5 

41.7 

48.9 

52.4 

59-2 

64-3 

67.4 

75 

28.8 

39.1 

44-7 

52.4 

55.6 

63.4 

68.9 

72.5 

80 

30.8 

41.7 

47.7 

55-9 

59-3 

67.7 

73-5 

77.1 

85 

32.7 

44-3 

50.7 

59-4 

63.0 

71.9 

78.0 

81.9 

90 

34-6 

46  9 

53.6 

62.9 

66  7 

76.1 

82.6 

86.7 

95 

36.6 

49-5 

56.6 

66.4 

70.8 

80.4 

87.0 

91.2 

IOO 

38.4 

52.1 

59.6 

69.9 

74-1 

84.6 

91.8 

96.3 

105 

40.4 

54-7 

62.6 

73-4 

77.8 

88  8 

96.4 

IOI.I 

no 

42.5 

57-4 

65-5 

76.4 

81.5 

93-1 

IOI.O 

106.0 

1  20 

46.1 

63-4 

71-5 

83.9 

89.4 

105.5 

1  10.  2 

115.2 

130 

50.0 

67.8 

77-5 

90.9 

95-3 

no.o 

II9.I 

125-4 

140 

53-8 

78.0 

83.5 

97-9 

103.8 

118.5 

128.6 

135.9 

249 


About  Heat  Units. 

Average  pressure  from  rule: — Divide  the  initial  pres- 
sure by  ratio  of  expansion  and  multiply  quotient  by  the 
hyperbolic  Logarithm  increased  by  i 

Loss  of  Heat. 

To  find  loss  in  the  gas  going  up  chimney  in  heat 
units : 

Weight  of  flue  gas  X  specific  heat  X  temperature 
above  boiler  room  =  heat  units. 

The  weight  of  air  theoretically  necessary  for  the  com- 
bustion of  one  pound  carbon  is  12  Ibs,  but  the  usual 
amount  in  practice  where  draft  is  used  is  24  Ibs. 

The  specific  heat  of  air  compared  with  water  is  .238. 

If  temperature  of  gas  leaving  boiler  is  500°  and  tem- 
perature of  boiler  room  80°,  then  the  coal  has  put  420° 
heat  units  into  24  Ibs.  air  for  each  Ib.  of  coal. 

24  Ibs.  air  X  .238  =  5.732.  This  multiplied  by  420 
=  2407.44  heat  units. 

Should  we  wish  to  determine  the  amount  of  water 
it  would  evaporate  from  212°  to  steam  at  212°  we  divide 
the  heat  units  by  966.  This  gives  us  2.48  Ibs.  of  water. 
This  is  the  heat  lost  in  producing  draft,  or  the  heat  lost 
in  chimney. 

It  is  at  this  point  that  the  only  hope  lies  in  economy 
in  the  use  of  powdered  fuel. 

With  the  fuel  powdered  fine  and  the  air  thoroughly 
mixed  and  blown  in  it  should  require  but  the  theoretic 
amount  of  air  which  would  save  one-half  the  above  loss. 
There  is  another  small  loss  that  might  be  saved. 

With  draft  in  the  flue  at  the  end  of  the  boiler,  either 
by  chimney  or  by  induced  draft  with  exhaust  fan,  there 
will  be  air  drawn  in  through  the  brick  work  and  through 
every  crack  and  crevice  and  has  a  cooling  effect. 

250 


Forced  Draft. 

Air  put  in  by  a  blower  so  that  the  pressure  inside 
of  the  furnace  shall  be  equal  to  that  of  the  external  air 
will  prevent  any  air  coming  in  except  that  which  goes 
through  the  fuel. 

Boiler  Tests. 

When  making  a  boiler  test  and  it  is  desired  to  find 
what  the  evaporation  is  "from  and  at  212°,"  or  from  212° 
of  feed  water  to  steam  at  same  temperature,  divide  the 
heat  units  put  in  by  the  coal  by  966°,  which  is  the  latent 
heat  of  steam  at  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

Suppose  the  pressure  was  100  Ibs.  and  temperature 
of  feed  96°.  The  total  heat  units,  taken  from  Porter's 
tables,  of  100  Ibs.  steam  1216.9.  The  temperature  in  feed 
was  96°. 

1216.9  —  96  —  1120.9  -f-  966  =  1.164. 

This  is  called  the  factor  of  equivalent  evaporation. 
Multiplying  the  actual  evaporation  by  this  factor  will  give 
what  the  evaporation  would  have  been  "from  and  at 
212°. "  If  the  evaporation  had  been  8.6  Ibs.  of  water, 
then  8.6  X  1.164  =  10.01. 

If  it  is  desired  to  find  the  H.  P.,  which  is  recog- 
nized as  30  Ibs.  of  water,  evaporated  per  hour  from  feed 
at  100°  to  steam  at  70  Ibs.  pressure. 

Find  the  factor  from  the  above  figures  which  are  at 
70  Ibs.  1210.  32  H.  U.  —  100°  =  1110.32  -r-  966  = 
1.150. 

The  factor  of  equivalent  evaporation,  1.164  multi- 
plied by  the  actual  amount  evaporated  per  hour  and 
divided  by  the  factor  of  100°  feed  to  steam  at  70  Ibs., 
viz.:  1.50  will  give  the  standard  H.  P. 

If  the  actual  evaporation  per  hour  had  been  10,000 
Ibs.  of  water  from  96°  of  feed  water  and  100  Ibs.  pres- 

251 


Electrical  Terms  and  Phrases. 

sure,  then  1.164  X  10,000  -f-  1.150  =  10,121.73.  This 
number  divided  by  30,  which  is  30  Ibs.  of  water  per  hour ; 
10,121.73  -r-  30  =  337.37  H.  P.  with  feed  at  100°  to  steam 
at  70  Ibs.  pressure. 

Piston  Speed  and  Horse  Power. 

Piston  speed  of  engine  X  area  of  piston  X  M.  E.  P. 
-f.  33,000  =  H.  P. 

Piston  speed  of  engine  X  area  of  piston  X  M.  E.  P. 
-T-  44,236  =  Kilowatts. 

Electrical  Terms. 

In  measuring  the  electric  current  there  is  one  thing 
that  puzzles  the  beginner.  He  cannot  understand  why 
the  dynamo  is  not  doing  work  when  the  switches  are 
thrown  out  and  wonders  where  the  current  goes. 

He  is  told  that  the  current  must  be  calculated  the 
same  as  water  and  the  amperes  as  volume,  and  that 
throwing  out  a  switch  is  the  same  as  shutting  off  a  valve. 
He  realizes  that  shutting  off  a  valve  means  raising  the 
pressure  and  this  is  what  puzzles  him. 

If  we  look  upon  the  electric  current  as  a  volume  of 
air  from  a  fan  blower,  that  when  a  gate  is  shut  and  a 
portion  or  all  of  the  air  is  shut  off  that  none  is  being 
moved  and  that  the  fan  is  simply  turning  in  the  case  it 
can  be  better  understood. 

If  it  is  desired  to  find  the  K.  W.  at  switch  board  with 
10%  loss,  -T-  48,659  K.  W.  X  1.34  =  H.  P. 

Allowing  for  10%  loss,  K.  W.  X  1.47  =  H.  P. 

A  volt  is  the  measure  of  electric  pressure  and  corre- 
sponds to  pounds  pressure  in  hydraulics. 

An  ampere  is  the  measure  of  electric  quantity  and 
corresponds  to  gallons,  etc.,  in  hydraulics. 

252 


Electrical  Notes. 

Volts  X  amperes  gives  the  watts  which  correspond 
to  energy,  446  of  which  =  I  horsepower. 

The  number  of  watts  divided  by  446  =  horsepower. 

An  Ohm  is  the  measure  of  electric  resistance  in  the 
wire  and  corresponds  to  friction  in  pipes. 

A  copper  wire  i-io"  area  and  i'  long  has  a  resist- 
ance of  10.6  ohms. 

In  determining  the  size  of  wire  the  entire  circuit, 
both  the  outgoing  and  the  return  must  be  taken  into 
account. 

A  16  candle-power  lamp  at  no  volts  requires  3>^ 
watts  per  candle  power  or  56  watts. 

When  estimating  the  size  of  wire  the  first  thing  to 
be  taken  into  account  is  the  "drop"  or  loss  in  voltage  that 
can  be  allowed. 

For  lighting  there  should  be  a  drop  of  but  2  volts 
on  a  no  volt  service,  or  2  per  cent. 

For  some  kinds  of  power  service  there  can  be  a  loss 
of  5  %.  At  500  volts  this  would  mean  a  drop  of  25  volts, 
and  at  10%  it  would  mean  50  volts.  The  latter  is  allowed 
on  railway  work. 

In  three  phase  work  the  volume  of  current  in  each 
wire,  or  terminal,  will  be  58%  of  total. 

If  we  have  a  three  phase  generator  of  a  capacity  of 
750  K.  W.  and  generating  current  under  12,000  volts  pres- 
sure, the  amperes  in  each  terminal  will  be  about  37. 

750  K.  W.  is  750,000  watts. 

750,000  -=-  12,00  =  62.5  amperes. 

58%  of  62.5  =  36.25  amperes  per  terminal  and  the 
volume  of  current  that  determines  the  size  of  each  wire. 

If  we  wish  to  supply  50  amp.  100  feet  distant  we 
have  a  circuit  of  200  feet.  If  the  voltage  is  no  and  we 

253 


Hardened  Copper. 

want  a  drop  of  but  2  volts  we  proceed  as  follows : 

resistance  X  amp.  X  distance 

—  =  circular  mils,  or 
volts  loss 

10.6  X  50  X  200 

—  =  53,ooo  circular  mils. 

2 

We  look  at  a  table  of  circular  mils  and  find  this  cor- 
responds to  No.  2  wire,  as,  if  there  is  no  number  of  wire 
that  corresponds,  the  larger  number  should  be  taken. 

This  number  is  from  Brown's  &  Sharp's  gauge. 

Brown  &  Sharp's  gauge  differs  from  all  others  in 
that  all  the  numbers  have  a  direct  relation  to  each  other. 
If  we  have  a  wire  and  wish  to  get  one  just  double  the 
area  we  count  up  three  of  the  numbers.  A  No.  ooo  wire 
has  just  double  the  area  of  No.  i.  No.  4  is  one-half  the 
area  of  No.  i.  No.  10  is  half  the  area  of  No.  7. 

Harden'ed  Copper. 

Receipt  for  hardened  copper-Blue  clay,  borax,  pot- 
ash and  straw,  equal  parts;  crush  fine,  mix  thoroughly 
together  and  let  it  remain  three  days  preparatory  to  use. 
To  i  Ib.  copper,  when  melted,  take  i  Ib.  8  oz.  of  the  mix- 
ture ;  stir  well  in  and  let  it  remain  one  hour.  Remove  the 
slag,  then  put  in  a  small  piece  of  glass  the  size  of  j£  oz- 
bottle  with  a  teaspoonful  of  borax ;  stir  well,  let  it  remain 
15  minutes  and  pour. 

A  patent  for  the  above  was  granted  to  a  woman.  This 
woman  was  not  a  metallurgist,  but  a  clairvoyant,  and  her 
story  was  that  during  a  trance  an  old  Egyptian  appeared 
to  her  and  gave  her  the  above  receipt. 

254 


Estimating  Water  Power. 

i 

Copper  made  from  the  above  will  be  gg%  copper  and 
the  stuff  put  into  the  copper  comes  out  in  the  form  of 
slag. 

From  the  above  receipt  copper  drills  have  been  made 
that  would  drill  granite.  For  bearings  it  should  be  made 
so  that  it  will  work  about  like  cast-iron. 

A  few  years  since  a  man  in  Pennsylvania  designed 
a  compound  metal  having  about  85  %  of  copper  that  could 
be  made  so  hard  that  a  hatchet  made  from  it  will  cut  nails. 

It  was  suggested  by  the  writer  that  a  trial  be  made  to 
show  its  shot  resisting  qualities  compared  with  steel. 

A  ball  from  a  Mauser  rifle  that  would  perforate  a 
l/2fr  steel  boiler  plate  would  only  penetrate  the  copper 
plate  y8". 

Points  of  compass  by  a  watch  point  the  hour  hand 
of  the  watch  to  the  sun  and  half  way  between  that  point 
and  12  is  due  south  when  north  of  the  equator. 

When  estimating  water  power  at  75%  efficiency,  a 
flow  of  705  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute  equals  I  H.  P. 
for  each  i  foot  fall. 

Other  Metals. 

Regarding  copper  as  a  metal  for  journals,  a  maker 
of  seamless  tubes  had  the  following  experience: 

When  drawing  seamless  tubes,  the  cast  shell  is  put 
on  an  arbor  and  pushed  through  a  die  and  the  friction  on 
the  arbor  is  enormous.  He  had  trouble  in  getting  a  lubri- 
cant for  his  arbors  that  would  prevent  the  brass  clinging 
and  cutting  the  arbor.  He  noticed  that  he  had  no  trouble 
with  the  copper  tubes,  so  he  would  draw  a  copper  tube, 
then  three  or  four  brass  tubes,  then  a  copper  and  so  on 
and  then  he  had  no  trouble  with  the  brass  tubes.  It  was 

255 


An  Expanding  Metal. 

shown  that  a  sufficient  film  of  copper  was  left  on  the  arbor 
to  lubricate  the  following  brass  tubes. 

Metal  that  will  expand  in  cooling: 

9  parts  lead. 

2  antimony. 

I      "       bismuth. 

Examination  Questions. 

Some  time  ago  the  owners  of  a  large  building  erect- 
ed in  New  York  City  put  in  an  elaborate  steam-heating 
and  elevator  machinery  plant,  and  they  required  a  good 
engineer  to  take  charge.  They  were  prepared  to  pay  good 
salary  to  a  suitable  man,  and  this  fact  becoming  known,  a 
host  of  applicants  became  candidates  for  the  place.  As  a 
means  of  helping  to  indicate  what  man  would  best  suit 
the  position,  the  candidates  were  required  to  take  part  in 
a  competitive  examination,  the  subjoined  being  the  ques- 
tions submitted.  Few  engineers  would  be  able  to  answer 
half  of  the  questions,  but  the  publication  of  them  will  give 
engineers  an  idea  of  the  range  of  knowledge  required  by 
those  favoring  the  system  of  appointment  through  merit 
alone,  and  they  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  study : 

What  is  your  name? 

Your  age,  and  where  born? 

Are  you  a  machinist  ? 

Where  were  you  apprenticed,  and  number  of  years 
you  worked  at  the  trade? 

What  is  steam? 

What  are  the  properties  of  steam? 

At  what  temperature  does  water  boil  at  sea  level? 

What  is  the  volume  of  steam  from  I  cubic  inch  of 
water  ? 

256 


Examination  Questions. 

— ~ 

What  is  the  temperature  of  steam,  and  volume  at  I 
pound  above  atmospheric  pressure? 

What  is  the  temperature  of  steam  at  60  pounds  above 
atmospheric  pressure? 

What  i's  the  proper  course  to  pursue  should  the  water 
be  found  low  in  the  boiler? 

If  a  boiler  72"  diameter  had  the  tubes  to  within  30" 
of  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  allowing  2"  around  the  shell 
and  top  of  the  tubes  did  not  call  for  braces,  what  would 
be  the  area  to  be  braced? 

What  form  of  braces  are  commonly  used  ? 

If  a  boiler  72"  diameter  were  filled  with  water  to 
within  1 8"  of  the  top,  what  would  be  the  area  of  that  por- 
tion filled  with  steam? 

What  is  the  largest  area  allowed  between  braces  ? 

What  types  of  engines  are  you  familiar  with  ? 

What  is  a  slide  valve? 

What  is  a  piston  valve? 

What  are  Corliss  valves  ? 

What  is  an  eccentric? 

How  much  throw  should  an  eccentric  have  ? 

How  should  an  eccentric  be  set  ? 

What  is  lap  ? 

What  is  lead  ? 

What  is  compression? 

Can  this  be  carried  too  far  ? 

How  would  you  place  an  engine  on  the  exact  center  ? 

How  would  you  set  a  slide  valve? 

How  would  you  set  Corliss  valves  with  single  ec- 
centric ? 

How  with  a  double? 

What  causes  an  engine  to  pound  ? 

How  can  it  be  remedied  ? 

257 


Examination  Questions. 

What  causes  an  engine  to  beat  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  remedies  ? 

How  would  you  determine  the  travel  of  a  piston  so 
it  should  be  the  same  distance  from  both  ends  of  the 
cylinder  ? 

Upon  what  does  the  efficiency  of  an  engine  depend  ? 

What  is  the  effect  of  too  slow  a  piston  speed  ? 

What  is  the  effect  of  too  high  a  rotative  speed  ? 

What  is  the  effect  of  clearance  ? 

What  relation  does  a  four-valve  engine  bear  to 
clearance  ? 

When  re-setting  the  steam  valves  on  a  Corliss  engine 
what  is  there  to  look  after  in  relation  to  the  governor  ? 

In  what  way  is  a  vacuum  of  benefit  to  an  engine  ? 

What  is  a  heater? 

In  what  way  is  a  heater  of  benefit  ? 

How  many  types  are  there? 

What  is  the  object  of  a  surface  condenser? 

Can  oil  be  separated  from  the  exhaust  steam? 

What  is  an  economizer  ? 

What  are  the  important  points  about  piping? 

What  is  the  cause  of  water  hammer  ? 

Should  a  pipe  incline  towards  the  boiler  or  towards 
engine  ?  Why  ? 

What  is  the  expansion  of  a  pipe  300'  long  with  150 
Ibs.  steam? 

How  can  this  expansion  be  taken  care  of  ? 

What  is  the  important  point  about  traps  ? 

What  is  sensible  heat? 

What  is  the  British  unit  of  heat? 

What  is  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat? 

What  is  the  equivalent  of  a  horse-power? 

What   is   the   horse-power   of   an   engine — cylinder, 

258 


Examination  Questions. 

I2"xi8";  initial  pressure,  80  pounds  per  square  inch;  cut- 
off, l/4  stroke;  revolutions,  100  per  minute? 

If  the  initial  pressure  be  80  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  cut-off  ^  stroke,  what  will  be  the  terminal  pressure  ? 

What  will  be  the  point  of  cut-off  to  reduce  the  termi- 
nal to  atmospheric  pressure? 

Have  you  ever  used  the  indicator? 

And  whose  make  ? 

Draw  an  indicator  diagram,  and  compute  the  horse- 
power from  it,  of  an  engine  I4"x22",  initial  pressure  75 
pounds,  cut-off  stroke,  revolutions  80  per  minute. 

Have  you  had  any  experience  with  piston  valves? 

State  what  other  valves  you  are  familiar  with,  and 
give  a  sketch  of  them. 

What  is  lap  and  lead? 

What  is  pre-release? 

Of  what  benefit  is  compression? 

What  is  the  tensile  strength  of  iron? 

And  of  steel  ? 

What  is  the  safe  working  pressure  per  square  inch 
of  a  tubular  boiler  54"  diameter,  plates  5-16"  thick? 

What  pressure  will  be  necessary  to  burst  an  iron 
boiler  30"  diameter,  5-16"  thick,  the  diameter  and  pitch  of 
rivets  so  they  will  shear  off  when  the  plates  have  reached 
the  limits  of  their  tensile  strength? 

Give  a  sketch  of  what  you  consider  the  best  boiler 
stay. 

And  how  a  boiler  should  be  stayed. 

What  grate  surface  do  you  allow  in  square  feet  per 
horse-power  ? 

What  is  a  fair  allowance  of  heating  surface  per 
horse-power  ? 

How  much  water  will  I  pound  of  coal  evaporate? 

259 


Examination  Questions. 

How  much  coal  would  be  a  fair  average  per  horse- 
power per  hour? 

How  much  water  evaporated  per  horse-power  per 
hour  ? 

Give  a  rule  for  computing  the  diameter  of  a  safety 
valve  for  a  given  boiler. 

Where  is  the  best  place  to  introduce  the  feed  water 
in  a  boiler? 

Where  should  the  blow-off  pipe  be  situated  ? 

When  is  the  best  time  to  remove  clinkers  from  the 
fire-brick  walls  with  the  least  injury  to  the  brick? 

Where  should  the  connections  be  made  in  a  boiler 
for  the  attachment  of  steam  and  water  gauges? 

Where  should  the  steam  and  water  gauges  be  situ- 
ated? 

What  is  your  opinion  as  to  the  use  of  Croton  water 
in  boilers? 

State  your  objections,  if  any? 

What  different  make  of  steam  gauges  are  you  fa- 
miliar with? 

State  maker's  name,  and  draw  a  vertical  section  of 
them. 

Have  you  had  an  experience  in  steam  heating? 

State  where. 

Would  it  be  economy  to  use  the  exhaust  steam  for 
heating  purposes,  if  it  should  throw  a  pressure  of  2 
pounds  per  square  inch  on  piston? 

What  weight  is  required  for  a  safety  valve  4"  diame- 
ter, total  length  of  lever  36",  from  fulcrum  to  valve  4", 
boiler  pressure  80  pounds  per  square  inch,  weight  of  valve 
and  connections  12  pounds? 

The  diameter  being  I,  what  is  the  area? 
260 


Examination  Questions. 

What  is  the  square  of  12? 

What  is  the  cubical  capacity  of  a  cylinder  4'xio'? 

What  is  the  pressure  per  square  inch  of  a  column  of 
water  100'  high? 

And  at  what  height  will  it  support  a  column  of  mer- 
cury ? 

What  is  a  soft  patch  on  a  boiler?  What  is  a  hard 
patch  ? 

Which  is  to  be  preferred,  and  why?  Which  is  bet- 
ter, drilled  or  punched  holes?  Why? 

How  should  a  boiler  be  cooled  off?  How  should 
the  water  in  a  boiler  be  changed? 

What  is  the  effect  of  leaving  the  doors  and  damper 
shut  ? 

What  is  foaming? 

What  are  the  causes  of  foaming?  How  are  boilers 
injured  by  it? 

How  are  engines? 

How  often  should  water  gauges  and  gauge  glasses 
be  blown  out? 

How  would  you  change  the  point  of  blowing  off  with 
a  spring  or  "pop"  valve? 

What  pumps  are  you  familiar  with? 

How  would  you  set  the  valves  for  a  duplex  pump  ? 

What  are  the  causes  of  a  pump  not  working? 

How  remedied? 

What  are  the  causes  for  an  injector  not  working? 

What  is  a  vacuum? 

Where  is  a  vacuum  used?  How  would  you  de- 
termine the  amount  of  water  for  a  condenser  ? 

How  would  you  determine  the  amount  of  water  a 
boiler  required  ? 

How  would  you  determine  the  size  of  pump  for  it? 

261 


About  Chimneys. 

How  much  grate  area  should  there  be  per  horse- 
power of  boiler? 

How  much  heating  surface? 

What  are  the  causes  that  lead  to  boiler  explosions  ? 

What   is   external   corrosion? 

What  is  internal  corrosion  or  pitting  ? 

What  are  the  causes  ? 

What  is  grooving  and  cause? 

When  are  explosions  the  most  destructive? 

Upon  what  does  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  depend? 

Stability  of  Chimneys. 

Stability,  or  power  to  withstand  the  over-turning 
force  of  the  highest  winds,  requires  a  proportionate  rela- 
tion between  the  weight,  height,  breadth  of  base,  and  ex- 
posed area  of  the  chimney.  This  relation  is  expressed  in 
the  quotation 

dh2 

C =  W, 

b 

in  which  d=  the  average  breadth  of  the, shaft;  h  =  its 
height;  b  =  the  breadth  of  base,  —  all  in  feet;  W  = 
weight  of  chimney  in  Ibs.,  and  C  =  a  co-efficient  of  wind 
pressure  per  square  foot  of  area.  This  varies  with  the 
cross-section  of  the  chimney,  and  =  56  for  a  square,  35 
for  an  octagon,  and  28  for  a  round  chimney.  Thus  a 
square  chimney  of  average  breadth  of  8  feet,  10  feet  wide 
at  base  and  100  feet  high,  would  require  to  weigh  56  x  8 
x  100  x  10  —  448,000  Ibs.,  to  withstand  any  gale  likely  to 
be  experienced.  Brickwork  weighs  from  100  to  130  Ibs. 
per  cubic  foot,  hence  such  a  chimney  must  average  13 
inches  thick  to  be  safe.  A  round  stack  could  weigh  half 
as  much,  or  have  less  base. 

262 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 
From  i -64th  to  100. 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

A 

.000192 

.04909 

11 

35.7848 

21.2058 

§ 

.000767 

.09818 

7 

38.4846 

21.9912 

TV 

.003068 

.19635 

1 

41.2826 

22.7766 

i 

.012272 

.3927 

i 

44.1787 

23.562 

T8j 

.027612 

.589 

1 

47.1731 

24.3474 

V 

.049087 

.7854 

8 

50.2656 

25.1328 

A 

.076G99 

.98175 

1 

53.4563  i   25.9182 

1 

.110447 

1.1781 

\ 

56.7451    26.7036 

Tl 

.15033 

1.37445 

1 

60.1322 

27.489 

I 

.19635 

1.5708 

9 

63.6174 

28.2744 

.248505 

1.76715 

i 

67.2008  ;   29.0598 

5' 

.306796 

1.9635 

i 

70.8823  i   29.8452 

ft 

.371224 

2.15985 

1 

74.6621 

30.6306 

1 

.441787 

2.3562 

10 

78.54 

31.416 

« 

.518487 

2.55255 

\ 

82.5161    32.2014 

V 

.601322 

2.7489 

I 

86.5903 

32.93G8 

A 

.690292 

2.94525 

1 

90.7628 

33.7722 

I? 

.7854 

3.1416 

11 

95.0334  I   34.5576 

i 

1.2272 

3.927 

\ 

99.4022 

35.343 

i 

1.7671 

4.7124 

I 

103.8691 

36.1284 

2.4053 

5.4978 

108.4343 

36.9138 

2 

3.1416 

6.2832 

12? 

113.098 

37.6992 

I 

3.9761 

7.0686 

1 

117.859 

38.4846 

i 

4.9087 

7.854 

I 

122.719 

39.27 

1 

5.9396 

8.6384 

1 

127.677 

40.0554 

3 

7.0686 

9.4248 

13 

132.733 

40.8408 

1 

8.2958 

10.2102 

1 

137.887 

41.6262 

I 

9.6211 

10.9956 

i 

143.139 

42.4116 

1 

11.0447 

11.781 

1 

148.49 

43.197 

4 

12.5664 

12.5664 

14 

153.938 

43.9824 

1 

14.1863 

13.3518 

I 

159.485 

44.7678 

i 

15.9043 

14.1372 

I 

165.13 

45.5532 

1 

17.7206 

14.9226 

i 

170.874 

46.3386 

5 

19.635 

15.708 

15 

176.715 

47.124 

\ 

21.6476 

16.4934 

\ 

182.655 

47.9094 

\ 

23.7583 

17.2788 

I 

188.692 

48.6948 

1 

25.9673 

18.0642 

i 

194.828 

49.4802 

28.2744 

18.8496 

16 

201.062 

50.2656 

i 

30.6797 

19.635 

i 

207.395 

51.051 

i 

33.1831 

20.4204 

i 

213,825 

51.8364 

263 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 
(Continued). 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

161 

220.354 

52.6218 

28 

615.754 

87.9648 

17 

226.981 

53.4072 

\ 

626.798 

88.7502 

i 

233.706 

54.1926 

I 

637.941 

89.5356 

i 

240.529 

54.978 

i 

649.182 

90.321 

i 

247.45 

55.7634 

29 

660.521 

91.1064 

18 

254.47 

56.5488 

\ 

671.959 

91.8918 

i 

261.587 

57.3342 

i 

683.494 

92.6772 

i 

268.803 

58.1196 

i 

695.128 

93.4626 

i 

276.117 

58.905 

30 

706.86 

94.248 

19 

283.529 

59.6904 

\ 

718.69 

95.0334 

I 

291.04 

60.4758 

* 

730.618 

95.8188 

i 

298.648 

61.2612 

i 

742.645 

96.6042 

i 

306.355 

62.0466 

31 

754.769 

97.3896 

20 

314.16 

62.832 

I 

766.992 

98.175 

i 

322.063 

63.6174 

i 

779.313 

98.9C04 

i 

330.064 

64.4028 

1 

791.732 

99.7458 

1 

338.164 

65.1882 

32 

804.25 

100.5312 

21 

346.361 

65.973G 

\ 

816.865 

101.31C6 

J 

354.657 

66.759 

I 

829.579 

102.102 

i 

363.051 

67.5444 

1 

842.391 

102.8874 

1 

371.543 

68.3298 

33 

855.301 

103.673 

22 

380.134 

69.1152 

\ 

868.309 

104.458 

i 

388.822 

69.9006 

J 

881.415 

105.244 

i 

397.609 

70.686 

1 

894.62 

106.029 

1 

406.494 

71.4714 

34 

907.922 

106.814 

23 

415.477 

72.2568 

\ 

921.323 

107.6 

424.558 

73.0422 

\ 

934.822 

108.385 

433.737 

73.8276 

1 

948.42 

109.171 

443.015 

74.613 

35 

962.115 

109.956 

24 

452.39 

75.3984 

i 

975.909 

110.741 

461.864 

76.1838 

I 

989.8 

111  .,527 

471.436 

76.9692 

1 

1003.79 

112.312 

481.107 

77.7546 

36 

1017.878 

113.088 

25 

490.875 

78.54 

\ 

1032.065 

113.883 

500.742 

79.3254 

\ 

1046.349 

114.  6C8 

510.706 

80.1108 

1 

1060.732 

115.454 

520.769 

80.8962 

37 

1075.213 

116.239 

26 

530.93 

81.6816 

| 

1089.792 

117.025 

541.19 

82.467 

i 

1104.469 

117.81 

551.547 

83.2524 

1 

1119.244 

118.595 

562.003 

84.0378 

38 

1134.118 

119.381 

27 

572.557 

84.8232 

i 

1149.089 

120.166 

i 

583.209 

85.6086 

i 

1164.159 

120.952 

i 

593.959 

86.394 

1179.327 

121.737 

1 

604.807 

87.1794 

39 

1194.593 

122.522 

264 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 
(Continued) . 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Area. 

-Circum. 

331 

1203.958 

123.308 

50i 

2002.97 

158.651 

i 

1225.42 

124.093 

1 

2022.85 

159.436 

1 

1240  981 

124.879 

51 

2042.83 

160.222 

40 

1256.64 

125.664 

4 

2062.9 

161.007 

4 

1272.397 

126.449 

i 

2083.08 

161.792 

\ 

1238.252 

127.235 

1 

2103.35 

162.578 

1 

1304.206 

128.02 

52 

2123.72 

163.363 

41 

1320.257 

128.806 

4 

2144.19 

164.149 

4 

1336.407 

129.591 

i 

2164.76 

164.934 

ft 

1352.655 

130.376 

1 

2185.42 

165.719 

1 

1339.001 

131.162 

53 

2206.19 

166.505 

42 

1335.45 

131.947 

4 

2227.05 

167.29 

4 

1401.99 

132.733 

\ 

2248.01 

168.076 

i 

1418.63 

133.518 

1 

2269.07 

168.861 

1 

1435.37 

134.303 

54 

2290.23 

169.646 

43 

1452.2 

135.089 

4 

2311.48 

170.432 

4 

1489.14 

135.874 

i 

2332.83 

171.217 

i 

1486.17 

135.66 

1 

2354.29 

172.003 

1 

1503.3 

137.445 

55 

2375.83 

172.788 

44 

1520.53 

133.23 

4 

2397.48 

173.573 

i 

1537.86 

139.016 

\ 

2419.23 

174.359 

i 

1555.29 

139.801 

1 

2441.07 

175.144 

1 

1572.81 

140.587 

56 

2463.01 

175.93 

45 

1590.43 

141  .  372 

4 

2485.05 

176.715 

4 

1608.16 

142.157 

i 

2507.19 

177.5 

i 

1625.97 

142.943 

1 

2529.43 

178.283 

1 

1643.89 

143.728 

57 

2551.76 

179.071 

46 

1661.91 

144,514 

4 

2574.2 

179.857 

4 

1680.02 

145.299 

I 

2596.73 

180.642 

ft 

1698.23 

146.084 

1 

2619.36 

181.427 

I 

1716.54 

146  ,87 

58 

2642.09 

182.213 

47 

1734.95 

147.655 

4 

2664.91 

182.998 

4 

1753.45 

148  441 

I 

2687.84 

183.784 

i 

1772.06 

149.226 

1 

2710.86 

184.  5C9 

1 

1790.70 

150.011 

59 

2733.98 

185.354 

48 

1809.56 

150.797 

4 

2757.2 

186.14 

i 

1828.46 

151.582 

i 

2780.51 

186.925 

I 

1847.46 

152.368 

•1 

2803.93 

187.711 

1 

1866.55 

153.153 

60 

2827.44 

188.496 

49 

1885.75 

153.938 

4 

2851.05 

189.281 

4 

1905.04 

154.724 

ft 

2874.76 

190.067 

1 

1924.43 

155.509 

1 

2898.57 

190.852 

1 

1943.91 

156.295 

61 

2922.47 

191.638 

50 

1963.5 

157.08 

4 

2946.48 

192.423 

\ 

1983.18 

157.865 

i 

2970.58 

193.  203 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 
(Continued) . 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

Diam. 

Area* 

Circum. 

612 

2994.78 

193.994 

73 

4185.4 

229.337 

62 

3019.08 

194.779 

i 

4214.11 

230.122 

4 

3043.47 

195.565 

I 

4242.93 

230.908 

i 

3067.97 

196.35 

1 

4271.84 

231  693 

1 

3092.56 

197.135 

74 

4300.85 

232.478 

63 

3117.25 

197.921 

\ 

4329.96 

233.264 

i 

3142.04 

198.706 

I 

4359.17 

2-34.049 

i 

3166.93 

199.492 

1 

4388.47 

234.835 

1 

3191.91 

200.277 

75 

4417.87 

235.62 

64 

3217. 

201.062 

\ 

4447.38 

236.405 

1 

3242.18 

201.848 

i 

4476.98 

237.191 

i 

3267.46 

202.633 

1 

4506.67 

237.976 

1 

3292.84 

203.419 

76 

4536.47 

238.762 

65 

3318.31 

204.204 

i 

4566.36 

239.547 

i 

3343.89 

204.989 

I 

4596.36 

240.332 

i 

3369.56 

205.775 

1 

4626.45 

241.118 

1 

3395.33 

203.56 

77 

4656.64 

241.903 

66 

3421.2 

207.346 

I 

4G86.92 

242.689 

i 

3447.17 

203.131 

\ 

4717.31 

243.474 

i 

3473.24 

208.916 

1 

4747.79    244.259 

s 

3499.4 

20J.702 

78 

4778.37    245.045 

67 

3525.66 

210.487 

\ 

4809.05 

245.83 

I 

3552.02 

211.273 

I 

4839.83 

246.616 

i 

3578.48 

212.058 

1 

4870.71 

247.401 

1 

3605.04 

212.843 

79 

4901.68 

248.186 

68 

3631.69 

213.629 

i 

4932.75 

248.972 

i 

3658.44 

214.414 

i 

4963.92 

249.757 

i 

3685.29 

215.2 

1 

4995.19 

250.543 

1 

3712.24 

215.985 

80 

5026.56 

251.328 

69 

3739.29 

216.77 

4 

5058.03 

252.113 

4 

3766.43 

217.556 

i 

5089.59 

252.899 

i 

3793.68 

218.341 

1 

5121  25 

253.684 

1 

3821.02 

219.127 

81 

5153.01 

254.47 

70 

3848.46 

219.912 

\ 

5184.87 

255.255 

i 

3876. 

220.697 

\ 

5216.82 

256.04 

i 

3903.63 

221.483 

1 

5218.88 

256.826 

1 

3931.37 

222.268 

82 

5281.03 

257.611 

71 

3959.2 

223.054 

1 

5313.28 

258.397 

i 

3987.13 

223.839 

i 

5345.63 

259.182 

i 

4015.16 

224.624 

1 

5378.08 

259.967 

1 

4043.29 

225.41 

83 

5410.62 

260.753 

72 

4071.51 

226.195 

i 

5443.26 

261.538 

* 

4099.84 

226.981 

i 

5476.01 

262.324 

i 

4128.26 

227.766 

1 

5508.84 

263.109 

1 

4156.78 

228.551 

84 

5541.78 

263.894 

266 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 
(Concluded). 


Diam. 

Area. 

Circum. 

Diam 

Area. 

~Circum. 

841 

5574.82 

264.68 

921 

6756.45 

291.383 

i 

5307.95 

265.465 

93 

6792.92 

292.169 

1 

5G41.18 

266.251 

\ 

6829.49 

292.954 

85 

5674.51 

267.036 

i 

6866.16 

293.74 

I 

5707.94 

267.821 

1 

6902.93 

294.525 

\ 

5741.47 

268.607 

94 

6939.79 

295.31 

i 

5775.1 

269.392 

\ 

6976.76 

296.096 

86 

5808.82 

270.178 

i 

7013.82 

296.881 

\ 

5842.64 

270.963 

i 

7050.98 

297.667 

I 

5876.56 

271.748 

95 

7088.23 

298.452 

1 

5910.58 

272.534 

\ 

7125.59 

299.237 

87 

5944.69 

273.319 

i 

7163.04 

300.023 

\ 

5978.91 

274.105 

1 

7200.6 

300.808 

I 

6013.22 

274.89 

96 

7238.25 

301.594 

I 

6047.63 

275.675 

4 

7275.99 

302.379 

88 

6082.14 

276.461 

i 

7313.84 

303.164 

1 

6116.74 

277.246 

1 

7351.79 

303.95 

I 

6151.45 

278.032 

97 

7389.83 

304.735 

i 

6186.25 

278.817 

\ 

7427.97 

305.521 

89 

6221.15 

279.602 

I 

7466.21 

306.306 

i 

6256.15 

280.388 

1 

7504.55 

307.091 

i 

6291.25 

281.173 

98 

7542.98 

307.877 

i 

6326.45 

281.959 

\ 

7581.52 

308.662 

90 

6361.74 

282.744 

i 

7620.15 

309.448 

\ 

6397.13 

283.529 

1 

7658.88 

310.233 

i 

6432.62 

284.315 

99 

7697.71 

311.018 

i 

6468.21 

285.1 

I 

7736.63 

311.804 

91 

6503.9 

285.886 

i 

7775.66 

312.589 

\ 

6539.68 

286.671 

1 

7814.78 

313.375 

i 

6575.56 

287.456 

100 

7854. 

314.16 

i 

6611.55 

288.242 

1 

7893.32 

314.945 

92 

6647.63 

289.027 

I 

7932.74 

315.731 

1 

6683.8 

289.813 

i 

7972.25 

316.516 

i 

6720.08 

290  .598 

2 

267 


Areas  of  Segments  of  a  Circle. 


D=diameter  of  circle.    H=Height  of  segment. 
Area  of  segment=D2XM.     The  following  table  gives  values  of 

TT 

M  corresponding  to  various  values  of  - 


H 
D 

M 

H 
D 

M 

H 

D 

JI 

H 
D 

M 

.001 

.000042 

.040 

.010538 

.079 

.028894 

.118 

.052090 

.002 

.000119 

.041 

.010932 

.080 

.029435 

.119 

.052737 

.003 

.000219 

.042 

.011331 

.081 

.029979 

.120 

.053385 

.004 

.000337 

.043 

.011734 

.082 

.030526 

.121 

.054037 

.005 

.000471 

.044 

.012142 

.083 

.031077 

.122 

.054G90 

.005 

.000619 

.045 

.012555 

.084 

.031630 

.123 

.055346 

.007 

.000779 

.046 

.012971 

.085 

.032186 

.124 

.05C004 

.003 

.000952 

.047 

.013393 

.086 

.032746 

.125 

.056C64 

.003 

.001135 

.048 

.013818 

.087 

.033308 

.126 

.057326 

.010 

.001329 

.049 

.014248 

.088 

.033873 

.127 

.057991 

.011 

.001533 

.053 

.014081 

.089 

.034441 

.128 

.058C58 

.012 

.001746 

.051 

.015119 

.090 

.035012 

.129 

.059328 

.013 

.001969 

.052 

.015561 

.091 

.035586 

.130 

.059999 

.014 

.002199 

.053 

.016008 

.092 

.0361C2 

.131 

.OGOC73 

.015 

.002438 

.054 

.016458 

.093 

.036742 

.132 

.061349 

.016 

.002685 

.055 

.016912 

.094 

.037324 

.133 

.062027 

.017 

.002940 

.056 

.017369 

.095 

.037909 

.134 

.062707 

.018 

.003202 

.057 

.017831 

.096 

.038497 

.135 

.063289 

.019 

.003472 

.058 

.018297 

.097 

.039087 

.136 

.064074 

.020 

.003749 

.059 

.018766 

.098 

.039681 

.137 

.064761 

.021 

.004032 

.060 

.019239 

.099 

.040277 

.138 

.OC5449 

.022 

.004322 

.061 

.019716 

.100 

.040875 

.139 

.06C140 

.023 

.004619 

.062 

.020197 

.101 

.041477 

.140 

.066833 

.024 

.004922 

.063 

.020681 

.102 

.042081 

.141 

.067528 

.025 

.005231 

.064 

.021168 

.103 

.042687 

.142 

.OC8225 

.026 

.005546 

.065 

.021660 

.104 

.043296 

.143 

.068924 

.027 

.005867 

.066 

.022155 

.105 

.043908 

.144 

.069626 

.028 

.006194 

.067 

.022653 

.106 

.044523 

.145 

.070329 

,029 

.006527 

.068 

.023155 

.107 

.045140 

.146 

.071034 

,030 

.006866 

.069 

.023660 

.108 

.045759 

.147 

.071741 

.031 

.007209 

.070 

.024168 

.109 

.046381 

.148 

.072450 

.032 

.007559 

.071 

.024680 

.110 

.047006 

.149 

.073162 

.033 

.007913 

.072 

.025196 

.111 

.047633 

.150 

.073875 

.034 

.008273 

.073 

.025714 

.112 

.048262 

.151 

.074590 

.035 

.008638 

.074 

.026236 

.113 

.048894 

.152 

.075307 

.036 

.009008 

.075 

.026761 

.114 

.049529 

.153 

.076026 

.037 

.009383 

.076 

.027290 

.115 

.050165 

.154 

.076747 

.038 

.009763 

.077 

.027821 

.116 

.050805 

.155 

.077470 

.039 

.010148 

.078 

.028356 

.117 

.051446 

.156 

.078194 

268 


Areas  of  Segments  of  a  Circle  (Continued). 


H 
D 

M 

H 

D 

M 

H 

D 

M 

H 
D 

M 

.157 

.078921 

.200 

.111824 

.243 

.147513 

.286 

.185425 

.153 

.079650 

.201 

.112625 

.244 

.148371 

.287 

.186329 

.159 

.080380 

.202 

.113427 

.245 

.149231 

.288 

.187235 

.130 

.081112 

.203 

.114231 

.246 

.150091 

.289 

.188141 

.101 

.081847 

.204 

.115036 

.247 

.150953 

.290 

.189048 

.102 

.082582 

.205 

.115842 

.248 

.151816 

.291 

.189956 

..103 

.083320 

.206 

.116651 

.249 

.152681 

.292 

.190865 

.104 

.084060 

.207 

.117460 

.250 

.153546 

.293 

.191774 

.105 

.084801 

.208 

.118271 

.251 

.154413 

.294 

.192685 

.108 

.085545 

.209 

.119083 

.252 

.155281 

.295 

.193597 

.107 

.086290 

.210 

.119898 

.253 

.156149 

.296 

.194509 

.108 

.087037 

.211 

.120713 

.254 

.157019 

.297 

.195423 

.169 

.087785 

.212 

.121530 

.255 

.157891 

.298 

.196337 

.170 

.088536 

.213 

.122348 

.256 

.158763 

.299 

.197252 

.171 

.089288 

.214 

.123167 

.257 

.159636 

.300 

.198168 

.172 

.090042 

.215 

.123988 

.258 

.160511 

.301 

.199085 

.173 

.090797 

.216 

.124811 

.259 

.161386 

.302 

.200.003 

.174 

.091555 

.217 

.125634 

.260 

.162263 

.303 

.200922 

.175 

.092314 

.218 

.126459 

.261 

.163141 

.304 

.201841 

.17G 

.093074 

.219 

.127286 

.262 

.164020 

.305 

.202762 

.1/7 

.093837 

.220 

.128114 

.263 

.164900 

.306 

.203683 

.1/8 

.094601 

.221 

.128943 

.264 

.165781 

.307 

.204605 

.1/9 

.095367 

.222 

.129773 

.265 

.166663 

.308 

.205528 

.130 

.096135 

.223 

.130605 

.266 

.167546 

.309 

.206452 

.131 

.098904 

.224 

.131438 

.267 

.168431 

.310 

.207376 

.132 

.097675 

.225 

.132273 

.268 

.169316 

.311 

.208302 

.183 

.098447 

.226 

.133109 

.269 

.170202 

.312 

.209228 

.184 

.099221 

.227 

.133946 

'.270 

.171090 

.313 

.210155 

.185 

.099997 

.228 

.134784 

.271 

.171978 

.314 

.211083 

.186 

.100774 

.229 

.135024 

.272 

.172868 

.315 

.212011 

.187 

.101553 

.230 

.136465 

.273 

.173758 

.316 

.212941 

.188 

.102334 

.231 

.137307 

.274 

.174650 

.317 

.213871 

.189 

.103116 

.232 

.138151 

.275 

.175542 

.318 

.214802 

.190 

.103900 

.233 

.138996 

.276 

.176436 

.319 

.215734 

.191 

.104686 

.234 

.139842 

.277 

.177330 

.320 

.216666 

.192 

.105472 

.235 

.140689 

.278 

.178226 

.321 

.217600 

.193 

.100201 

.236 

.141538 

.279 

.179122 

.322 

.218534 

.194 

.107051 

.237 

.142388 

.280 

.180020 

.323 

.219469 

.195 

.107843 

.238 

.143239 

.281 

.180918 

.324 

.220404 

.196 

.108636 

.239 

.144091 

.282 

.181818 

.325 

.221341 

.197 

.109431 

.240 

.144945 

.283 

.182718 

.326 

.222278 

.198 

.110227 

.241 

.145800 

.284 

.183619 

.327 

.223216 

.199 

.111025 

.212 

.146655 

.285 

.184522 

.328 

.224154 

269 


Areas  of  Segments  of  a  Circle  (Concluded}. 


H 
D 

If 

H 
D 

U 

H 
D 

M 

M. 

D 

M 

.329 

.225094 

.372 

.266111 

.415 

.308110 

.458 

.350749 

.330 

.226034 

.373 

.267078 

.416 

.309096 

.459 

.351745 

.331 

.226964 

.374 

.268046 

.417 

.310082 

.460 

.352742 

.332 

.227916 

.375 

.269014 

.418 

.3110G8 

.461 

.353739 

.333 

.228858 

.376 

.269982 

.419 

.312055 

.462 

.354736 

.334 

.229801 

.377 

.270951 

.420 

.313042 

.463 

.355733 

.335 

.230745 

.378 

.271921 

.421 

.314029 

.464 

.356730 

.336 

.231689 

.379 

.272891 

'.422 

.315017 

.465 

.357728 

.337 

.232634 

.380 

.273861 

.423 

.316005 

.466 

.358725 

.338 

.233580 

.381 

.274832 

.424 

.316993 

.467 

.359723 

.339 

.234526 

.382 

.275804' 

.425 

.317981 

.468 

.360721 

.340 

.235473 

.383 

.276776 

.426 

.318970 

.469 

.361719 

.341 

.236421 

.384 

.277748 

.427 

.319959 

.470 

.362717 

.342 

.237369 

.385 

.278721 

.428 

.320949 

.471 

.363715 

.343 

.238319 

.386 

.279695 

.429 

.321938 

.472 

.364714 

.344 

.239268 

.387 

.280669 

.430 

.322928 

.473 

.365712 

.£45 

.240219 

.388 

.281643 

.431 

.323919 

.474 

.366711 

.346 

.241170 

.389 

.282618 

.432 

.324909 

.475 

.367710 

.347 

.242122 

.390 

.283593 

.433 

.325900 

.476 

.368708 

.348 

.243074 

.391 

.284569 

.434 

.326891 

.477 

.369707 

.349 

.244027 

.392 

.285545 

.435 

.327883 

.478 

.370706 

.350 

.244980 

.393 

.286521 

.436 

.328874 

.479 

.371705 

.351 

.245935 

.394 

.287499 

.437 

.329866 

.480 

.372704 

.352 

.246890 

.395 

.288476 

.438 

.330858 

.481 

.373704 

.353 

.247845 

.396 

.289454 

.439 

.331851 

.482 

.374703 

.354 

.248801 

.397 

.290432 

.440 

.332843 

.483 

.375702 

.355 

.249758 

.398 

.291411 

.441 

.333836 

.484 

.376702 

.356 

.250715 

.399 

.292390 

.442 

.334829 

.485 

.377701 

.357 

.251673 

.400 

.293370 

.443 

.335823 

.486 

.378701 

.358 

.252632 

.401 

.294350 

.444 

.336816 

.487 

.379701 

.359 

.253591 

.402 

.295330 

.445 

.337810 

.488 

.380700 

.360 

.254551 

.403 

.296311 

.446 

.338804 

.489 

.381700 

.361 

.255511 

.404 

.297292 

.447 

.339799 

.490 

.382700 

.362 

.256472 

.405 

.298274 

.448 

.340793 

.491 

.383700 

.363 

.257433 

.406 

.299256 

.449 

.341788 

.492 

.384699 

.364 

.258395 

.407 

.300238 

.450 

.342783 

.493 

.385699 

.365 

.259358 

.408 

.301221 

.451 

.343778 

.494 

.386699 

.366 

.260321 

.409 

.302204 

.452 

.344773 

.495 

.387699 

.367 

.261285 

.410 

.303187 

.453 

.345768 

.496 

.388699 

.368 

.262249 

.411 

.304171 

.454 

.346764 

.497 

.389699 

.369 

.263214 

.412 

.305156 

.455 

.347760 

.498 

.390699 

.370 

.264179 

.413 

.306140 

.456 

.348756 

.499 

.391699 

.371 

.265145 

.414 

.307125 

.457 

.349752 

.500 

.392699 

270 


PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM. 


Pressure,  Temperature,  Volume   and  Density. 
(Haswell.) 


b 

c 

w 

15 

* 

£3 

""*  • 

2 

W  >rt 

o 

*^  3 

S-.s 

V    U 

S8 

I 

£ 

i! 

|- 

"  S* 

2*H 

H  8-w 

ii 

'!««  § 

£ 

£ 

1 

H*- 

>°* 

Q  ofa 

y*. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Cu.  Ft. 

th. 

i 

2.04 

102.1 

1112.5 

330.36 

.003 

2 

4.07 

126.3 

1119.7 

172.08 

.0058 

3 

6.11 

141.6 

1124.6 

117.52 

.0085 

4 

8.14 

153.1 

1128.1 

89.62 

.0112 

5 

10.18 

162.3 

1130.9 

72.66 

.0138 

6 

12.22 

170.2 

1133.3 

61.21 

.0163 

7 

14.25 

176.9 

1135.3 

52.94 

.0189 

8 

16.29 

182.9 

1137.2 

46.69 

.0214 

9 

18.32 

188.3 

1138.8 

41.79 

.0239 

10 

20.36 

193.3 

1140.3 

37.84 

.0264 

11 

22.39 

197.8 

1141.7 

34.63 

.0289 

12 

24.43 

202. 

1143. 

31.88 

.0314 

13 

26.46 

205.9 

1144.2 

29.57 

.0338 

14 

28.51 

209.6 

1145.3 

27.61 

.0362 

14.7 

29.92 

212. 

1146.1 

26.36 

.03802 

15 

30.54 

213.1 

1146.4 

25.85 

.0387 

16 

32.57 

216.3 

1147.4 

24.32 

.0411 

17 

34.61 

219.6 

1148.3 

22.96 

.0435 

18 

36.65 

222.4 

1149.2 

21.78 

.0459 

19 

38.68 

225.3 

1150.1 

20.7 

.0483 

20 

40.72 

228. 

1150.9 

19.72 

.0507 

21 

42.75 

230.6 

1151.7 

18.84 

.0531 

22 

44.79 

233.1 

1152.5 

18.03 

.0555 

23 

46.83 

235.5 

1153.2 

17.26 

.058 

24 

48.86 

237.8 

1153.9 

16.64 

.0601 

25 

50.9 

240.1 

1154.6 

15.99 

.0625 

26 

52.93 

242.3 

1155.3 

15.38 

.065 

27 

54.97 

244.4 

1155.8 

14.86 

.0673 

28 

57.01 

246.4 

1156.4 

14.37 

.0696 

29 

59.04 

248.4 

1157.1 

13.9 

.0719 

271 


Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  (Continued). 


I 

c 

t 

$1 

rH 

•*"*  y 

§.a 

SS 

3  8 

1 
B 

o. 

ffi^ 

~gis 

0 
|| 

•^*i-H   * 

8  g* 

ug 

1 

^<£  rt 

|l 

£"o£ 

PH 

PH 

*" 

H 

Q 

I^S. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Cu.  Ft. 

I,b. 

30 

61.08 

250.4 

1157.8 

13.46 

.0743 

31 

63.11 

252.2 

1158.4 

13.05 

.0766 

32 

65.15 

254.1 

1158.9 

12.67 

.0789 

33 

67.19 

255.9 

1159.5 

12.31 

.0812 

34 

69.22 

257.6 

1160. 

11.97 

.0835 

35 

71.26 

259.3 

1160.5 

11.65 

.0858 

36 

73.29 

260.9 

1161. 

11.34 

.0881 

37 

75.33 

262.6 

1161.5 

11.04 

.0905 

38 

77.37 

264.2 

1162. 

10.76 

.0929 

39 

79.4 

265.8 

1162.5 

10.51 

.0952 

40 

81.43 

267.3 

1162.9 

10.27 

.0974 

41 

83.47 

268.7 

1163.4 

10.03 

.0996 

42 

85.5 

270.2 

1163.8 

9.81 

.102 

43 

87.54 

271.6 

1164.2 

9.59 

.1042 

44 

89.58 

273. 

1164.6 

9.39 

.1065 

45 

91.61 

274.4 

1165.1 

9.18 

.1089 

46 

93.65 

275.8 

1165.5 

9. 

.1111 

47 

95.69 

277.1 

1165.9 

8.82 

.1133 

48 

97.72 

278.4 

1166.3 

8.65 

.1156 

49 

99.76 

279.7 

1166.7 

8.48 

.1179 

50 

101.8 

281. 

1167.1 

8.31 

.1202 

51 

103.83 

282.3 

1167.5 

8.17 

.1224 

52 

105.87 

283.5 

1167.9 

8.04 

.1246 

53 

107.9 

284.7 

1168.3 

7.88 

.1269 

54 

109.94 

285.9 

1168.6 

7.74 

.1291 

55 

111.98 

287.1 

1169. 

7.61 

.1314 

56 

114.01 

288.2 

1169.3 

7.43 

.1336 

57 

116.05 

289.3 

1169.7 

7.36 

.1364 

58 

118.08 

290.4 

1170. 

7.24 

.138 

59 

130.12 

291.6 

1170.4 

7.12 

.1403 

60 

122.16 

292.7 

1170.7 

7.01 

.1425 

61 

124.19 

293.8 

1171.1 

6.9 

.1447 

62 

126.23 

294.8 

1171.4 

6.81 

.1469 

63 

128.26 

295.9 

1171.7 

6.7 

.1493 

64 

130.3 

296.9 

1172. 

6.6 

.1516 

65 

132.34 

298. 

1172.3 

6.49 

.1538 

66 

134.37 

299. 

1172.6 

6.41 

.156 

67 

136.4 

300. 

1172.9 

6.32 

.1583 

68 

138.44 

300.9 

1173.2 

6.23 

.1605 

69 

140.48 

301.9 

1173.5 

6.15 

.1627 

272 


Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  (Continued). 


£ 

§.a 

3* 

£M 

Pressure  «jn 
Mercury. 

Temperature. 

rt  S3 

w3 
W£  . 

•388 
|lts 

Volume  of  1 
Pound. 

DehsityorWt. 
of  1  Cubic 
Foot. 

1 

lybS. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Cu.  Ft.             I<b. 

70 

142.52 

302.9 

1173.8 

6.07 

.1648 

71 

144.55 

303.9 

1174.1 

5.99 

.167 

72 

146.59 

304.8 

1174.3 

5.91 

.1692 

73 

148.62 

305.7 

1174.6 

5.83 

.1714 

74 

150.66 

306.6 

1174.9 

5.76 

.1736 

75 

152.69 

307.5 

1175.2 

5.68 

.1759 

76 

154.73 

308.4 

1175.4 

5.61 

.1782 

77 

156.77 

309.3 

1175.7 

5.54 

.1804 

78 

158.8 

310.2 

1176. 

5.48 

.1826 

79 

160.84 

311.1 

1176.3 

5.41 

.1848 

80 

162.87 

312. 

1176.5 

5.35 

.1869 

81 

164.91 

312.8 

1176.  8 

5.29' 

.1891 

82 

166.95 

313.6 

1177.1 

5.23 

.1913 

83 

168.98 

314.5 

1177.4 

5.17 

.1935 

84 

171.02 

315.3 

1177.6 

5.11 

.1957 

85 

173.05 

316.1 

1177.9 

5.05 

.198 

86 

175.09 

316.9 

1178.1 

5. 

.2002 

87 

177.13 

317.8 

1178.4 

4.94 

.2024 

88 

179.16 

318.6 

1178.6 

4.89 

.2044 

89 

181.2 

319.4 

1178.9 

4.84 

.2067 

90 

183.23 

320.2 

1179.1 

4.79 

.2089 

91 

185.27 

321. 

1179.3 

4.74 

.2111 

92 

187.31 

321.7 

1179.5 

4.69 

.2133 

93 

189.34 

322.5 

1179.8 

4.64 

.2155 

94 

191.38 

323.3 

1180. 

4.6 

.2176 

95 

193.41 

324.1 

1180.3 

4.55 

.2198 

96 

195.45 

324.8 

1180.5 

4.51 

.2219 

97 

197.49 

325.6 

1180.8 

4.46 

.2241 

98 

199.52 

326.2 

1181. 

4.42 

.2263 

99 

201.56 

327.1 

1181.2 

4.37 

.2285 

100 

203.59 

327.9 

1181.4 

4.33 

.2307 

101 

205.63 

328.5 

1181.6 

4.29 

.2329 

102 

207.66 

329.1 

1181.8 

4.25 

.2351 

103 

209.7 

329.9 

1182. 

4.21 

.2373 

104 

211.74 

330.6 

1182.2 

4.18 

.2393 

105 

213.77 

331.3 

1182.4 

4.14 

.2414 

106 

215.81 

331.9 

1182.6 

4.11 

.2435 

107 

217.84 

332.6 

1182.8 

4.07 

.2456 

108 

219.88 

333.3 

1183. 

4.04 

.2477 

109 

221.92 

334. 

1183.3 

4. 

.2499 

273 


Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  (Continued), 


Pressure  per 
sq.  in. 

Pressure  in 
Mercury. 

Temperature. 

s$ 

4, 

r>  °* 

T2  6  w 

Ss*. 

£ 

Volume  of  1 
Pound. 

Density  or  Wt. 
of  1  Cubic 
Foot. 

I<bs 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Cu.  Ft. 

I,b. 

110 

223.95 

334.6 

1183.5 

3.97 

.2521 

111 

225.99 

335.3 

1183.7 

3.93 

.2543 

112 

228.02 

336. 

1183.9 

3.9 

.2564 

113 

230.06 

336.7 

1134.1 

3.86 

.2586 

114 

232.1 

337.4 

1184.3 

3.83 

.2607 

115 

234.13 

338. 

1184.5 

3.8 

.2628 

116 

236.17 

338.6 

1184.7 

3.77 

.2649 

117 

238.2 

339.3 

1184.9 

3.74 

.2652 

118 

240.24 

339.9 

1185.1 

3.71 

.2674 

119 

242.28 

340.5 

1185.3 

3.68 

.2696 

120 

244.31 

341.1 

1185.4 

1  3.65 

.2738 

121 

246.35 

341.8 

1185.6 

3.62 

.2759 

122 

248.38 

342.4 

1185.8 

3.59 

.278 

123 

250  .  42 

343. 

1186. 

3.56 

.2801 

124 

252.45 

343.6 

1186.2 

3.54 

.2822 

125 

254.49 

344.2 

1186.4 

3.51 

.2845 

126 

256.53 

344.8 

1186.6 

3.49 

.2867 

127 

258.56 

345.4 

1186.8 

3.46 

.2889 

128 

260.6 

346. 

1186.9 

3.44 

.2911 

129 

262.64 

346.6 

1187.1 

3.41 

.2933 

130 

264.67 

347.2 

1187.3 

3.38 

.2955 

131 

266.71 

347.8 

1187.5 

3.35 

.2977 

132 

268.74 

348.3 

1187.6 

3.33 

.2999 

133 

270.78 

348.9 

1187.8 

3.31 

.302 

134 

272.81 

349.5 

1188. 

3.29 

.304 

135 

274.85 

350.1 

1188.2 

3.27 

.306 

136 

276.89 

350.6 

1188.3 

3.25 

.308 

137 

278.92 

351.2 

1188.5 

3.22 

.3101 

138 

280  .  96 

351.8 

1188.7 

3.2 

.3121 

139 

282  .  99 

352.4 

1188.9 

3.18 

.3142 

140 

285.03 

352.9 

1189. 

3.16 

.3162 

141 

287.07 

353.5 

1189.2 

3.14 

.3184 

142 

289.1 

354. 

1189.4 

3.12 

.3206 

143 

291.14 

354.5 

1189.6 

3.1 

.3228 

144 

293.17 

355. 

1189.7 

3.08 

.325 

145 

295.21 

355.6 

1189.9 

3.06 

.3273 

146 

297.25 

356.1 

1190. 

3.04 

.3294 

147 

299.28 

356.7 

1190.2 

3.02 

.3315 

148 

301.32 

357.2 

1190.3 

3. 

.3336 

149 

303.35 

357.8 

1190.5 

2.98 

.3357 

274 


Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  (Concluded). 


o, 

c 

tf 

*S 

Z 

£i 

ct 

1 

^o' 

0 

0<3 

w  " 

3  5 

tfl    V- 

Ck 

»-.    g  CO 

6  ° 

.*J  iH  *i 

W    M 

Is 

| 
v 

rt  3 
,°£  rt 

•5  o 

g^HjO 

PH 

r 

** 

Q  ° 

£b* 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Cu.  Ft. 

J4>. 

150 

305.39 

358.3 

1190.7 

2.96 

.3377 

155 

315.57 

361. 

1191.5 

2.87 

.3484 

160 

325.75 

363.4 

1192.2 

2.79 

.359 

165 

335.93 

366. 

1192.9 

2.71 

.3695 

170 

346.11 

368.2 

1193.7 

2.63 

.3798 

175 

356.29 

370.8 

1194.4 

2.56 

.3899 

180 

366.47 

372.9 

1195.1 

2.49 

.4009 

185 

376.65 

375.3 

1195.8 

2.43 

.4117 

190 

386.83 

377.5 

1196.5 

2.37 

.4222 

195 

397.01 

379.7 

1197.2 

2.31 

.4327 

200 

407.19 

381.7 

1197.8 

2.26 

.4431 

210 

427  .54 

386. 

1199.1 

2.16 

.4634 

220 

447.9 

389.9 

1200.3 

2.06 

.4842 

230 

468.26 

393.8 

1201.5 

1.98 

.5052 

240 

488.62 

397.5 

1202.6 

1.9 

.5248 

250 

508  .98 

401.1 

1203.7 

1.83 

.5464 

260 

529.34 

404.5 

1204.8 

1.76 

.5669 

270 

549.7 

407.9 

1205.8 

1.7 

.5868 

280 

570.06 

411.2 

1206.8 

1.64 

.6081 

290 

590.42 

414.4 

1207.8 

1.59 

.6273 

300 

610.78 

417.5 

1208.7 

1.54 

.6486 

350 

712.57 

430.1 

1212.6 

1.33 

.7498 

400 

814.37 

444.9 

1217.1 

1.18 

.8502 

450 

916.17 

456.7 

1220.7 

1.05 

.9499 

500 

1018. 

467.5 

1224. 

.95 

1.049 

550 

1119.8 

477.5 

1227. 

.87 

1.148 

600 

1221.6 

487. 

1229.9 

.8 

1.245 

650 

1323.4 

495.6 

1232.5 

.74 

1.342 

700 

1425.8 

504.1 

1235.1 

.69 

1.4395 

800 

1628.7 

519.5 

1239.8 

.61 

1.6322 

900 

1832.3 

533.6 

1244.2 

.55 

1.8235 

1000 

2035.9 

546.5 

1248.1 

.5 

2.014 

275 


INDEX 


Air— weight   of , 250 

Alkali    in   oil 212 

Ammonia  in  water 51 

Ampere 252 

Anchor  bolts   94 

Anthracite  coal 9 

Area  of  tubes   231 

Areas  of  Circles  263-267 

Areas  of  Segments   268-270 

Atmospheric   Pressure    . . 223 

Average  pressures   249 

Babbitt  metals   148 

Babbitt  packing  rings   133 

Banking  fire    20 

Balancing   vertical    engines 113 

Balanced  valves    173 

Bearing    metal 147 

Belt  dressing  205 

Belt  joints    205 

Belt  leather   201 

Belting 130-198-207 

Belts — power    of    203 

Black    lead    63-147 

Blowers   12 

Home  made  14 

Blow-off  valve  troubles   33 

Blow-off   pipes    44 

Boiler   braces    235 

Boiler  compounds — Cutch   23 

Gambier   23 

Carbonate  of  Soda 23 

Japonica     23 

Kerosene   23 

Potatoes    23 

Sal.  soda  23 

Tannic   acid    23 

Boiler — contents  of   228 

Boiler  economy  221-232 

Boiler  explosions 51 

Boiler  feeding 19 

Boiler  fittings    42 

Boiler  horse  power 227 

Boiler  ratings .228 

Boiler  room   7 

Boiler    settings     26-42-44 

Boiler   tests    . . 251 

Boilers   51 

276 


Boilers — material 39 

Boilers — strength  of    39 

Boilers — weakness  of 51 

Braces 235 

Brick   foundations    97 

Bricklaying 82 

Bridge   walls    -7 46 

Bronze  bearings    ?.  . .  .  149 

Bulkley's    condensers 180 

Burnishing    218 

Carbonate  of  soda   23 

Caustic    soda    23 

Cards 152-155-157 

Causes  of  heating   151 

Air  bound  pumps 238 

Air  chambers 237 

Air  pumps  and  condensers 176 

Air  pump  packing   177 

Cement  and  mortar .83 

Cement 84 

Mixing     88 

Portland 84 

Rosendale .  .84 

Specifications 87 

Testing .  .86 

Centering   engine 160 

Check    valves 65 

Chemicals  for  coal I 

Chimneys    

Brick  or  steel 99 

Size    of    101 

Stability  of  262 

Table  of    102 

Circles    231 

Circles.  Areas  of    263-267 

Circulation 31-43-222 

Cleaning  Boilers   7-222 

Cleaning  boiler  flues 7 

Clean  boilers 222 

Cleaning   engines    218 

Cleaning  fire 1 1 

Clearance     224 

Clinkers 10 

Compound    engines    in 

Compounds  for  cleaning  218 

Compounds — tandem    175 

Compression • 172-225 

Concrete 90 

Condensation 223 

Condenser  troubles 180 

Condensers  and  air  pumps    67-176-178 

Condensing   Engines    69-174 

277 


Contents  of  boiler   228 

Continuous    oiling    214 

Cooling  bearings    147 

Cooling  mixtures 147 

Cooling  off  boilers    27-29 

Cooling  towers    186- 188 

Copper  elbows — don't  use 63 

Copper — hardened    254 

Copper  rings    133 

Corliss  engines    107-111-120-136-139-145-152 

Corliss  engine  with  two  eccentrics 153-156-162 

Corliss,  Geo.  H 105-177 

Corliss  valves    175 

Corliss   valve   setting    158 

Corrosion .51 

Crank  pin  and  cross  head  boxes  149 

Crank  pin  not  central  1 18 

Crank  pins — pressing  on   125 

Cranks  out  of  square   119 

Crossheads — weak    115 

Curved  pipes 74 

Cutch    23 

Cut-off 224 

Cylinder  bushings    133 

Cylinder  drips  77 

Cylinder  oils    132 

Cylinder  pressure 248 

Cylinder — smooth  or  rough   131 

Cylinder — water  in 135 

Cylinder — wear  of 131 

Dam  for  water  supply 37 

Dampers    103 

Defective  steam  gages 32-242 

Direct  connected  engines    .no 

Dirty  streams — feed  water  from 38 

Down   draft    15 

Draft — forced  or  induced    103-251 

Draining  of  floors   50 

Draining  of  pipes 65 

Drip  pipes  for  cylinders    79 

Drop  of  voltage   253 

Duplex  pumps   21-237-239 

Eccentrics    133 

Economizers     241 

Economy    166 

Economy  of  boiler 232 

Efficiency  of  boiler 221 

Efficiency  of  engine    223 

Electric  light  engines 107-174 

Electrical  boiler  cleaner    ' . .  24 

Electrical   terms    . . 252 

Electricity  or  shafting   145 

278 


Engine  design   no 

Engine   efficiency    223 

Engine    room    tools    195 

Equivalent   evaporation    •  • 251 

Erecting   engines    ' 146 

Estimating  water  power 255 

Evaporation    T .  250 

Examining  boards    •  • 21-256-261 

Examining  masonry   91 

Examination  questions    256-261 

Exhaust  passages  '. 134 

Exhaust  pipes    •  • 133 

Expanding  metal    256 

Expansions  in  pipes  61-222 

Expansion  of  steam   248 

Expansion  of  wrought  iron  •  • 222 

Extracting  oil  from  water 191 

Factor  of  evaporation    251 

Factor  of  safety  41 

Feeding  boilers    • < 19-226 

Feed  pipes    43 

Feed  pump — size  of  •  •  226 

Filtering  oils    214 

Filtering  water 8 

Fire  brick   arch 47 

Fire — Thickness  of   10 

Fire  tools    10-11 

Firing 9-12-14-16-17 

Fish    oils    209 

Fittings  for  boilers    42 

Flanged   joints    60 

Flash  test  of  9il •  • 211 

Floors — draining   of    5° 

Flow  of  steam  247 

Fly  wheels    123-245 

Foaming    •  • 234 

Follower  bolts 137-139 

Foot  valves    38 

Forced   draft 103-251 

Foundations    92-94 

Stone  and  brick   97 

Strength    of    •  • 92 

Frames  out  of  line 1 16 

Frozen  gage  pipe 32 

Furnace  plates 48 

Fusible  plug  21 

Gage  cocks  may  deceive 33 

Gage  connections    33 

Gage  glass  cutters   •  •  T97 

Gage  glass  points   33- r97 

Gage — steam     32-242 

Gambier     •  • .  -  23 

279 


Gaskets — laying  out  234 

Graphite 212 

Grate    surface 228 

Grates    232 

Grease    215 

Gridiron  valves   171 

Grooving 52 

Guides 117 

Gum 209 

Hard  patch  on  boiler  234 

Hardened  copper 149-254 

Heat — latent  53 

Sensible 53 

Total     53 

Heat    units    20-53-221 

Heaters — feed  water 69-239-240 

Heating  by  steam    79 

Heating   of   bearings — causes    151 

Heating  liquids   70 

Heating   surface    42-228 

High  test  oils 211 

High  speed  engine    144-164-172 

High   steam  pressure    146 

Hinge  joint  for  belt 205 

Holding  fly  wheels 123 

Home-made  blower   14 

Horizontal  vs.  Vertical  engines  in 

Horse  power   • 221 

Horse  power  of  belts   203 

Horse  power  of  boiler 227 

Horse  power  of  engine 165-252 

Hot  boxes  and  bearing  metal  147 

Hot  well  capacity ;.......  182 

Hot  well  temperature    185 

Howe,    Elias    105 

Hydraulic    piping 58 

Idlers  or  tighteners   198 

Indicator    cards     !52-i55-i57 

Induced   draft 103 

Inertia 225 

Injection    water    186 

Injectors     238 

Japonica 23 

Jet  condensers 186 

Joints  for  pipe  59 

Joule's    experiment    221 

Junk   ring 140-163 

Kerosene   boilers    23 

Keys    122 

Kilowatts     252 

Lacing  a  belt   206 

Lap     225 

280 


Lard    oils    209 

Latent   heat    53 

Laying  out  a  valve   169 

Lazy   bar    12 

Lead    154-168-225 

Leather  for  belts   201 

Leaky  blow-off  valve    7.- 33 

Leaks  in  a  cool  boiler  30 

Leaky  tubes    28 

Leveling  shaft   1 19-129 

Lime    23 

Lining  up  engine 121-125-128 

Locomotive    pounds     122 

Loose  glands  or  packing   121 

Loss  by  dirt  and  scale 222 

Loss  of  heat   250 

Lubricants 150-208 

Mason    work 82-89 

Examining    91 

Mean  effective  pressure  -...:.  .249 

Mercury,  weight  of  223 

Metal   for  bearings 255 

Metal  that  expands  in  cooling  256 

Mineral    oil .214 

Mortar  and  cement .82 

Mud  in  boilers 8 

Neatsfoot  oil    209 

Notes,  Rules  and  Tables . .  221-231 

Ohm 253 

Oil    agents    210 

Oil  filters 214 

Oil  in  condensers   ; 189 

Oil  in  water 133 

Oil  mixtures 210 

Oil  separators   191 

Oils 132-208 

Oiling  continuously   ? 214 

Open    heaters     241 

Overheating  boilers   28 

Oxalic   acid    219 

Packing  for  air  pumps    " ijj 

Packing  sticks 197 

Packing   with   paper 122 

Paper  packing  122 

Pastes  for  polishing   219 

Patching  boilers    233 

Pedestal  bearings    131 

Petroleum   209 

Picking  out  belts    200 

Pile    driving    93 

Pillow  block  not  level 130 

Pipes,  draining  of   65 

28! 


Pipe  joints    59 

Pipes — steam    71 

Pipe  threads    55 

Table  of    57 

Welds    55 

Piping     8-54 

Piping    a    hotel 80 

Piping   a    receiver    81 

Piping,  expansion  of  61-222 

Piping,  hydraulic   58 

Pistons   135 

Piston  packing  rings    141 

Piston  rods  and  follow  bolts   137 

Piston  rod  breaks 115 

Piston  rod  fastenings   138 

Piston    speed    223-252 

Piston  too  small  120 

Piston   valves    108-172 

Points  of  compass  by  watch  255 

Polishing   metals    219 

Pop   valves    8-45-245 

Poppet  valves 106-167 

Potatoes  as  boiler  cleaner  25 

Pounds  and  their  causes    114-118-120-122-143 

Powdered   coal    i$-2$o 

Powder  or  steam  pump 22 

Power  of  engines    165 

Power  pumps 236 

Power   taken   by  pumps    236 

Pre-release    225 

Pressing  on  crank  pins 125 

Pressure  in  cylinders   248 

Pressure,   standards   of    223 

Properties  of  steam   271-275 

Pulleys   and   Ropes 242 

Pulleys  not  put  on  true   130 

Pulverized    coal    15 

Pumps     21-77-226-236-239 

Pumps — duplex     237-5239 

Pumps  for  boiler  feeding   21 

Pump,  leaking  piston   239 

Pump,   power    required    236 

Pumps,  rule  for 226 

Pump,   slip  of   226 

Pumps,  suction  for   77 

Pumps  that  pound    22 

Pump   valves    240 

Putting  engine  on  center   160 

Questions  for  examinations  21-256-261 

Ransom's    condenser    179 

Ratio  of  grate  and  heating  surface 228 

Real  boiler  economy  232 

282 


Receiver   piping    81 

Reversing  an   engine    170 

Ring   oiling    216 

Ropes  and  pulleys   242 

Rosendale    cement    84 

Rough    cylinders 132 

Rule    for    pumps .- 227 

Rules  for  strength  of  boilers 4 

Rules,  Notes  and  Tables    221-231 

Runaway  engines   174 

Safety  valves    8-45-242 

Safety    valve    outlet    48 

Sal  soda    23 

Scale  and  mud    7-23 

Scrapers    197 

Sector  of  circle    228 

Segment  of  circle    228 

Segment  of  circle — Area  of   268-270 

Selecting  an  engine  163 

Sensible   heat    53 

Separators    190 

Set  screws  in  fly  wheels  123 

Setting  eccentrics   169 

Settings  for  boilers   42-44 

Shaking  grates    233 

Shimming  the   frame 128 

Side  walls  of  boiler  setting   46 

Size  of  wire 253 

Slide  valves   168 

Slip   joints    74 

Slip   of  pump    226 

Smoke    12-14-16 

Smooth  cylinders   : 131 

Soft    coal    firing    12-17 

Soft   patches    233 

Solutions  for  cleaning   219 

Specifications  for  belts  207 

Specifications   for  cement    87 

Speed  of  belts  204 

Stability  of  chimneys    262 

Standards  of  pressure 223 

Starting    bars 1 59 

Starting  up  a  boiler 89 

Steam — Facts    about    53  247 

Steam  gage  connections  33 

Steam    gage    frozen    32 

Steam   gage    242 

Steam    heating    79 

Steam  jackets 157 

Steam  packing  rings   142 

Steam  pipes  71 

Steam  vs.   power  pump    22 

283 


Steam,   Properties   of    ' 271-275 

Steam  pumps 237 

Steam    room    229 

Steam    traps    76 

Steel  for  boilers   39 

Stokers  18 

Stone  and  brick  foundations   97 

Stove  blacking  lubricant   147 

Strainers    34-36-182 

Strength  of  boilers    39 

Strength  of  boilers,  Rules  for  40 

Stroke    ' 224 

Suction   for  pumps 77 

Surface    condensers 189 

Sweet's    follower   bolt    140 

Syphon   condensers    179 

Tables- 
Areas   of  circles 263-267 

Chimneys    102 

Pipe   threads    57 

Segments    of    circles 268-270 

Steam,  Properties  of 271-275 

Tables,   Notes  and  Rules    221-231 

Tallow    208 

Tandem  compound    175 

Tannic  acid    23 

Testing    alignment     129 

Testing    cement    86 

Testing    oils .215 

Testing  water 8 

Temperature  of  hot  well   185 

Terminal    pressure    225 

The   engine   room    105 

Thickness  of  fire    10-16 

Three  phase  work 253 

Tight  belts    145-198 

Tighteners    199 

Tools  for  engineer  195 

Traps 76 

Travel  of  valve 225 

Triangles     247 

Trying  gage  cocks   33 

Tubes,    Cleaning    7 

Iron    41 

Steel    ' 41 

Too    many    42 

Twisted  guides   1 17 

Two  eccentrics  on  Corliss  engines 153-156-162 

Unequal   expansion 52 

Vacuum    185-192 

Valves    167-173 

Valves,   balanced    173 

284 


Valve  on  Straight  Line  engine   64 

Valve    openings    64 

Valve  setting  J58 

Valve  travel  225 

Valves  setting,  pump   240 

Valves  that  spring  171 

Vent    valves    238 

Vertical  engines ^.  . .  .  1 1 1 

Vertical  engine  exhausts    .-. . .  133 

Viscosity  of  oil   211-213 

Volt    , 252 

Waste   gas   boiler 31 

Waste  heat,  using 26-241 

Water 54 

Water  for  jet  condensers  186 

Water    from    streams 34 

Water  in  cylinders    135 

Water    strainers    ."" 34~3^ 

Water  in  exhaust  pipe 68 

Water  in  pipes 42 

Water  in  steam  pipes 67 

Water  hammer 75 

Water  power,   estimating 255 

Water,  pressure  of 223 

Water  test 8 

Water,  weight  of 223 

Watt,  James , 105 

Watts 253 

Wear  of  cylinders   131 

Welds  in  pipe   >  58 

White  lead  vs.  black  lead  for  valves 63 

Wide  belts  „ 202 

Winter  masonry 89 

Wire,  size  of  , 253 

Wirthington   condensers 182 

Wright,    William 107 

Wrist    plates ............ 154-156 

Wrought  iron,  expansion  of  ......................... 222 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


285 


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CATALOGUE  OF 
STANDARD 
PRACTICAL  AND 
SCIENTIFIC 
BOOKS 


PUBLISHED  AND  FOR  SALE  BY 

The  Norman  W,  Henley  Publishing  Go, 

132  Nassau  St.,  New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 

Brazing  and  Soldering 3 

Cams ii 

Charts 3 

Chemistry 4 

Civil  Engineering 4 

Coke 4 

Compressed  Air 4 

Concrete 5 

Dictionaries 5 

Dies— Metal  Work 6 

Drawing— Sketching  Paper 6 

Electricity 7 

Enameling 9 

Factory  Management,  etc 9 

Fuel 10 

Gas  Engines  and  Gas 10 

Gearing  and  Cams n 

Hydraulics 1 1 

Ice  and  Refrigeration n 

Inventions -Patents 12 

Lathe  Practice 12 

Liquid  Air 12 

Locomotive  Engineering 12 

Machine   Shop   Practice 14 

Manual  Training 17 

Marine  Engineering 17 

Metal  Work-Dies 6 

Mining 17 

Miscellaneous 18 

Patents  and  Inventions 12 

Pattern  Making 18 

Perfumery 18 

Plumbing 19 

Receipt  Book 24 

Refrigeration  and  Ice n 

Rubber 19 

Saws 20 

Screw  Cutting 20 

Sheet  Metal  Work 20 

Soldering 3 

Steam  Engineering 20 

Steam  Heating  and  Ventilation 22 

Steam  Pipes 22 

Steel 22 

Watch  Making 23 

Wireless  Telephones ' 23 


Any  of  these  books  will  be  sent  prepaid  to   any   part  of 
the  world,  on  receipt  of  price. 

REMIT  by  Draft,  Postal  Money  Order,  Express  Money  Order 
or  by  Registered  Mail. 


GOOD,  USEFUL  BOOKS 


BRAZING    AND    SOLDERING 


BRAZING  AND  SOLDERING.  By  JAMES  F.  HOBART. 
The  only  book  that  shows  you  just  how  to  handle  any  job  of 
brazing  or  soldering  that  comes  along;  tells  you  what  mixture 
to  use,  how  to  make  a  furnace  if  you  need  one.  Full  of  kinks. 
4th  edition.  25  cents 


CHARTS 


BATTLESHIP  CHART.  An  engraving  which  shows  the 
details  of  a  battleship  as  if  the  sides  were  of  glass  and  you  could 
see  all  the  interior.  The  finest  piece  of  work  that  has  ever  been 
done.  So  accurate  that  it  is  used  at  Annapolis  for  instruction 
purposes.  Shows  all  details  and  gives  correct  name  of  every 
part.  28  x  42  inches — plate  paper.  50  cents 

BOX  CAR  CHART.  A  chart  showing  the  anatomy  of  a  box 
car,  having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and  its  proper  name 
given  in  a  reference  list.  20  cents 


GONDOLA  CAR  CHART.  A  chart  showing  the  anatomy 
of  a  gondola  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and  its 
proper  reference  name  given  in  a  reference  list.  20  cents 


PASSENGER  CAR  CHART.  A  chart  showing  the  anatomy 
of  a  passenger  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and  its 
proper  name  given  in  a  reference  list.  20  cents 


TRACTIVE  POWER  CHART.  A  chart  whereby  you  can 
find  the  tractive  power  or  drawbar  pull  of  any  locomotive, 
without  making  a  figure.  Shows  what  cylinders  are  equal,  how 
driving  wheels  and  steam  pressure  affect  the  power.  What  sized 
engine  you  need  to  exert  a  given  drawbar  pull  or  anything  you 
desire  in  this  line.  50  cents 


WESTINGHOUSE  AIR-BRAKE  CHARTS.  Chart  I.— 
Shows  (in  colors)  the  most  modern  Westinghouse  High  Speed 
and  Signal  Equipment  used  on  Passenger  Engines,  Passenger 
Engine  Tenders,  and  Passenger  Cars.  Chart  II. — Shows  (in 
colors)  the  Standard  Westinghouse  Equipment  for  Freight 
and  Switch  Engines,  Freight  and  Switch  Engine  Tenders,  and 
Freight  Cars.  Price  for  the  set,  50  cents 


CHEMISTRY 

HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF 
RECEIPTS,  FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES.  Edited  by 
GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  The  most  valuable  Techno-chemical 
Receipt  Book  published,  including  over  10,000  selected  scientific 
chemical,  technological,  and  practical  receipts  and  processes. 
See  page  24  for  full  description  of  this  book.  83.00 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING 


HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  EN- 
GINEERING AND  ALLIED  TRADES.  Edited  by  JOSEPH 
G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.,  M.E.  This  set  of  five  volumes  contains 
about  2,500  pages  with  thousands  of  illustrations,  including  dia- 
grammatic and  sectional  drawings  with  full  explanatory  details. 
It  covers  the  entire  practice  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering. 
It  tells  you  all  you  want  to  know  about  engineering  and  tells  it 
so  simply,  so  clearly,  so  concisely  that  one  cannot  help  but 
understand.  86.00  per  volume  or  $25.00  for  complete  set  of  five 
volumes. 

COKE 

COKE— MODERN  COKING  PRACTICE;  INCLUDING 
THE  ANALYSIS  OF  MATERIALS  AND  PRODUCTS. 

By  T.  H.  BYROM,  Fellow  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  Fellow 
of  The  Chemical  Society,  etc.,  and  J.  E.  CHRISTOPHER,  Member 
of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  etc.  A  handbook  for 
those  engaged  in  Coke  manufacture  and  the  recovery  of  By- 
products. Fully  illustrated  with  folding  plates. 

The  subject  of  Coke  Manufacture  is  of  rapidly  increasing  in- 
terest and  significance,  embracing  as  it  does  the  recovery  of 
valuable  by-products  in  which  scientific  control  is  of  the  first 
importance.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors,  in  preparing 
this  book,  to  produce  one  which  shall  be  of  use  and  benefit  to 
those  who  are  associated  with,  or  interested  in,  the  modern  de- 
velopments of  the  industry. 

Contents:  Chap.  I.  Introductory.  Chap.  II.  General  Classi- 
fication of  Fuels.  Chap.  III.  Coal  Washing.  Chap.  IV.  The 
Sampling  and  Valuation  of  Coal,  Coke,  etc.  Chap.  V.  The 
Calorific  Power  of  Coal  and  Coke.  Chap.  VI.  Coke  Ovens. 
Chap.  VII.  Coke  Ovens,  continued.  Chap.  VIII.  Coke  Ovens, 
continued.  Chap.  IX.  Charging  and  Discharging  of  Coke  Ovens. 
Chap.  X.  Cooling  and  Condensing  Plant.  Chap.  XL  Gas  Ex- 
hausters. Chap.  XII.  Composition  and  Analysis  of  Ammoniacal 
Liquor.  Chap.  XIII.  Working  up  of  Ammoniacal  Liquor. 
Chap.  XIV.  Treatment  of  Waste  Gases  from  Sulphate  Plants. 
Chap.  XV.  Valuation  of  Ammonium  Sulphate.  Chap.  XVI. 
Direct  Recovery  of  Ammonia  from  Coke  Oven  Gases.  Chap. 
XVII.  Surplus  Gas  from  Coke  Oven.  Useful  Tables.  Very 
fully  illustrated.  83.50  net 

COMPRESSED    AIR 

COMPRESSED  AIR  IN  ALL  ITS  APPLICATIONS.     By 

GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  the  most  complete  book  on  the 
subject  of  Air  that  has  ever  been  issued,  and  its  thirty-five 
chapters  include  about  every  phase  of  the  subject  one  can  think 
of.  It  may  be  called  an  encyclopedia  of  compressed  air.  It  is 
written  by  an  expert,  who,  in  its  665  pages,  has  dealt  with  the 
subject  in  a  comprehensive  manner,  no  phase  of  it  being  omitted. 
Over  500  illustrations,  sth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
Cloth  bound;  85.00,  Half  morocco,  86.50 


CONCRETE 


ORNAMENTAL  CONCRETE  WITHOUT  MOLDS,      By  A.  A. 

HOUGHTON.  The  process  for  making  ornamental  concrete  with- 
out molds,  has  long  been  held  as  a  secret  and  now,  for  the  first 
time,  this  process  is  given  to  the  public.  The  book  reveals  the 
secret  and  is  the  only  book  published  which  explains  a  simple, 
practical  method  whereby  the  concrete  worker  is  enabled,  by 
employing  wood  and  metal  templates  of  different  designs,  to 
mold  or  model  in  concrete  any  Cornice,  Archivolt,  Column, 
Pedestal,  Base  Cap,  Urn  or  Pier  in  a  monolithic  form — right 
upon  the  job.  These  may  be  molded  in  units  or  blocks,  and 
then  built  up  to  suit  the  specifications  demanded.  This  work 
is  fully  illustrated,  with  detailed  engravings.  82.00 

POPULAR  HAND  BOOK  FOR  CEMENT  AND  CON- 
CRETE USERS,  By  MYRON  H.  LEWIS,  C.E.  This  is  a  con- 
cise treatise  of  the  principles  and  methods  employed  in  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  cement  in  all  classes  of  modern  works. 
The  author  has  brought  together  in  this  work,  all  the  salient 
matter  of  interest  to  the  user  of  concrete  and  its  many  diversified 
products.  The  matter  is  presented  in  logical  and  systematic 
order,  clearly  written,  fully  illustrated  and  free  from  involved 
mathematics.  Everything  of  value  to  the  concrete  user  is  given. 
Among  the  chapters  contained  in  the  book  are:  I.  Historical 
Development  of  the  Uses  of  Cement  and  Concrete.  II.  Glossary 
of  Terms  employed  in  Cement  and  Concrete  work.  III.  Kinds 
of  Cement  employed  in  Construction.  IV.  Limes,  Ordinary  and 
Hydraulic.  V.  Lime  Plasters.  VI.  Natural  Cements.  VII. 
Portland  Cements.  VIII.  Inspection  and  Testing.  IX.  Adul- 
teration; or  Foreign  Substances  in  Cement.  X.  Sand,  Gravel 
and  Broken  Stone.  XI.  Mortar.  XII.  Grout.  XIII.  Con- 
crete (Plain).  XIV.  Concrete  (Reinforced).  XV.  Methods 
and  Kinds  of  Reinforcements.  XVI.  Forms  for  Plain  and  Re- 
inforced Concrete.  XVII.  Concrete  Blocks.  XVIII.  Arti- 
ficial Stone.  XIX.  Concrete  Tiles.  XX.  Concrete  Pipes  and 
Conduits.  XXI.  Concrete  Piles.  XXII.  Concrete  Buildings. 
XXIII.  Concrete  in  Water  Works.  XXIV.  Concrete  in  Sewer 
Works.  XXV.  Concrete  in  Highway  Construction.  XXVI. 
Concrete  Retaining  Walls.  XXVII.  Concrete  Arches  and 
Abutments.  XXVIII.  Concrete  in  Subway  and  Tunnels. 
XXIX.  Concrete  in  Bridge  Work.  XXX.  Concrete  in  Docks 
and  Wharves.  XXXI.  Concrete  Construction  under  Water. 
XXXII.  Concrete  on  the  Farm.  XXXIII.  Concrete  Chimneys. 
XXXIV.  Concrete  for  Ornamentation.  XXXV.  Concrete 
Mausoleums  and  Miscellaneous  Uses.  XXXVI.  Inspection  for 
Concrete  Work.  XXXVII.  Waterproofing  Concrete  Work. 
XXXVIII.  Coloring  and  Painting  Concrete  Work.  XXXIX. 
Method  of  Finishing  Concrete  Surfaces.  XL.  Specifications  and 
Estimates  for  Concrete  Work.  ,  $2.50 

DICTIONARIES 


STANDARD      ELECTRICAL      DICTIONARY.      By    T. 

O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  An  indispensable  work  to  all  interested  in 
electrical  science.  Suitable  alike  for  the  student  and  profession- 
al. A  practical  hand-book  of  reference  containing  definitions 
of  about  5,000  distinct  words,  terms  and  phrases.  The  defini- 
tions are  terse  and  concise  and  include  every  term  used  in  electri- 
cal science.  Recently  issued.  An  entirely  new  edition.  -Should 
be  in  the  possession  of  all  who  desire  to  keep  abreast  with  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  science.  Complete,  concise  and  con- 
venient. 682  pages — 393  illustrations.  S3. 00 


DIES— METAL   WORK 

DIES,  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  FOR  THE 
MODERN  WORKING  OF  SHEET  METALS.  By  J.  V. 

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wish  to  know  the  latest  practice  in  the  working  of  sheet  metals. 
It  shows  how  dies  are  designed,  made  and  used,  and  those  who 
are  engaged  in  this  line  of  work  can  secure  many  valuable  sug- 
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PUNCHES,  DIES  AND  TOOLS  FOR  MANUFACTUR- 
ING IN  PRESSES.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH.  An  encyclo- 
pedia of  die-making,  punch-making,  die-sinking,  -sheet-metal 
working,  and  making  of  special  tools,  subpresses,  devices  and 
mechanical  combinations  for  punching,  cutting,  bending,  form- 
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metal  parts  and  also  articles  of  other  materials  in  machine 
tools.  This  is  a  distinct  work  from  the  author's  book  entitled 
"Dies;  Their  Construction  and  Use."  500  pages,  700  engrav- 
ings. $4.00 

DRAWING— SKETCHING   PAPER 

LINEAR  PERSPECTIVE  SELF-TAUGHT.  By  HERMAN 
T.  C.  KRAUS.  This  work  gives  the  theory  and  practice  of  linear 
perspective,  as  used  in  architectural,  engineering,  and  mechanical 
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50  cents 

SELF-TAUGHT  MECHANICAL  DRAWING  AND  ELE- 
MENTARY MACHINE  DESIGN.  By  F.  L.  SYLVESTER,  M.E., 
Draftsman,  with  additions  by  Erik  Oberg,  associate  editor  of 
"Machinery."  A  practical  elementary  treatise  on  Mechanical 
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geometric  and  mechanical  drawing,  workshop  mathematics, 
mechanics,  strength  of  materials  and  the  calculation  and  design 
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and  young  draftsmen.  82.00 

A  NEW  SKETCHING  PAPER.  A  new  specially  ruled  paper 
to  enable  you  to  make  sketches  or  drawings  in  isometric  per- 
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ELECTRICITY 


ARITHMETIC  OF  ELECTRICITY.  By  Prof.  T.  O'CoNOR 
SLOANE.  A  practical  treatise  on  electrical  calculations  of  all 
kinds  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules,  all  of  the  simplest  forms,  and 
involving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each  '/ule  illustrated  by 
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pages.  81.00 

COMMUTATOR  CONSTRUCTION.      By  WM.  BAXTER, 

JR.  The  business  end  of  any  dynamo  or  motor  of  the  direct 
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fusses  with  dynamos  needs  this.  25  cents 

DYNAMO  BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS,  OR  HOW  TO 
CONSTRUCT  A  FIFTY  WATT  DYNAMO.  By  ARTHUR 
J.  WEED,  Member  of  N.  Y.  Electrical  Society.  This  book  is  a 
practical  treatise  showing  in  detail  the  construction  of  a  small 
dynamo  or  motor,  the  entire  machine  work  of  which  can  be  done 
on  a  small  foot  lathe. 

Dimensioned  working  drawings  are  given  for  each  piece  of 
machine  work  and  each  operation  is  clearly  described. 

This  machine  when  used  as  a  dynamo  has  an  output  of  fifty 
watts;  when  used  as  a  motor  it  will  drive  a  small  drill  press  or 
lathe.  It  can  be  used  to  drive  a  sewing  machine  on  any  and  all 
ordinary  work. 

The  book  is  illustrated  with  more  than  sixty  original  engrav- 
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Paper  50  cents     Cloth  *1.00 

ELECTRIC  FURNACES  AND  THEIR  INDUSTRIAL 
APPLICATIONS.  By  J.WRIGHT.  This  is  a  book  which  will 
prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people;  the  manufacturer 
who  desires  to  know  what  product  can  be  manufactured  success- 
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himself  on  the  electro-chemistry,  and  the  student  of  science 
who  merely  looks  into  the  subject  from  curiosity.  288  pages. 

$9.00 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  AND  HEATING  POCKET 
BOOK.  By  SYDNEY  F.  WALKER.  This  book  puts  in  conven- 
ient form  useful  information  regarding  the  apparatus  which  is 
likely  to  be  attached  to  the  mains  of  an  electrical  company. 
Tables  of  units  and  equivalents  are  included  and  useful  electrical 
laws  and  formulas  are  stated.  438  pages,  300  engravings.  $3.OO 

ELECTRIC  TOY  MAKING,  DYNAMO  BUILDING,  AND 
ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CONSTRUCTION.  This  work  treats 
of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys,  electrical  apparatus, 
motors,  dynamos,  and  instruments  in  general,  and  is  designed  to 
bring  within  the  reach  of  young  and  old  the  manufacture  of  gen- 
uine and  useful  electrical  appliances.  185  pages.  Fully  illus- 
trated. $1.00 


ELECTRIC  WIRING,  DIAGRAMS  AND  SWITCH- 
BOARDS. By  NEWTON  HARRISON.  This  is  the  only  complete 
work  issued  showing  and  telling  you  what  you  should  know 
about  direct  and  alternating  current  wiring.  It  is  a  ready 
reference.  _  The  work  is  free  from  advanced  technicalities  and^ 
mathematics.  Arithmetic  being  used  throughout.  It  is  in  every 
respect  a  handy,  well-written,  instructive,  comprehensive 
volume  on  wiring  for  the  wireman,  foreman,  contractor  or  elec- 
trician. 272  pages,  105  illustrations.  $1.50 

ELECTRICIAN'S  HANDY  BOOK.  By  PROF.  T.  O'CoNOR 
SLOANE.  This  work  is  intended  for  the  practical  electrician, 
who  has  to  make  things  go.  The  entire  field  of  Electricity  is 
covered  within  its  pages.  It  contains  no  useless  theory;  every- 
thing is  to  the  point.  It  teaches  you  just  what  you  should 
know  about  electricity.  It  is  the  standard  work  published  on 
the  subject.  Forty-one  chapters,  610  engravings,  handsomely 
bound  in  red  leather  with  titles. and  edges  in  gold.  S3. 50 

ELECTRICITY  IN  FACTORIES  AND  WORKSHOPS, 
ITS  COST  AND  CONVENIENCE.  By  ARTHUR  P.  HASLAM. 
A  practical  book  for  power  producers  and  power  users  showing 
what  a  convenience  the  electric  motor,  in  its  various  forms,  has 
become  to  the  modern  manufacturer.  It  also  deals  with  the 
conditions  which  determine  the  cost  of  electric  driving,  and 
compares  this  with  other  methods  of  producing  and  utilizing 
power.  312  pages.  Very  fully  illustrated.  82.50 

ELECTRICITY  SIMPLIFIED.  By  PROP.  T.  O'CoNOR 
SLOANE.  The  object  of  "Electricity  Simplified"  is  to  make  the 
subject  as  plain  as  possible  and  to  show  what  the  modern  con- 
ception of  electricity  is;  to  show  how  two  plates  of  different 
metals  immersed  in  acid  can  send  a  message  around  the  globe; 
to  explain  how  a  bundle  of  copper  wire  rotated  by  a  steam  engine 
can  be  the  agent  in  lighting  our  streets,  to  tell  what  the  volt,  ohm 
and  ampere  are,  and  what  high  and  low  tension  mean;  and  to 
answer  the  questions  that  perpetually  arise  in  the  mind  in  this 
age  of  electricity.  172  pages.  Illustrated.  SI. 00 

HOW    TO  BECOME    A  SUCCESSFUL  ELECTRICIAN. 

By  PROF.  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  An  interesting  book  from  cover 
to  cover.  Telling  in  simplest  language  the  surest  and  easiest  way 
to  become  a  successful  electrician.  The  studies  to  be  followed, 
methods  of  work,  field  of  operation  and  the  requirements  of  the 
successful  electrician  are  pointed  out  and  fully  explained. 
202  pages.  Illustrated.  81.00 

MANAGEMENT  OF  DYNAMOS.  By  LUMMIS-PATER- 
SON.  A  handbook  of  theory  and  practice.  This  work  is  arranged 
in  three  parts.  The  first  part  covers  the  elementary  theory  of 
the  dynamo.  The  second  part,  the  construction  and  action  of 
the  different  classes  of  dynamos  in  common  use  are  described; 
while  the  third  part  relates  to  such  matters  as  affect  the  prac- 
tical management  and  working  of  dynamos  and  motors.  292 
pages,  117  illustrations.  81.50 

STANDARD  ELECTRICAL  DICTIONARY.  By  Prof.  T. 
O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  A  practical  handbook  of  reference  contain- 
ing definitions  of  about  5,000  distinct  words,  terms  and  phrases. 
The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and  include  every  term 
used  in  electrical  science.  682  pages,  393  illustrations.  83.0O 


SWITCHBOARDS.  By  WILLIAM  BAXTER,  JR.  This  book 
appeals  to  every  engineer  and  electrician  who  wants  to  know 
the  practical  side  of  things.  All  sorts  and  conditions  of  dynamos, 
connections  and  circuits  are  shown  by  diagram  and  illustrate 
just  how  the  switchboard  should  be  connected.  Includes  direct 
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candescent, and  power  circuits.  Special  treatment  on  high 
voltage  boards  for  power  transmission.  190  pages.  Illustrated. 

81.50 

TELEPHONE  CONSTRUCTION,  INSTALLATION. 
WIRING,  OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE.  By  W.  H. 

RADCLIFFE  and  H.  C.  CUSHING.  This  book  gives  the  principles 
of  construction  and  operation  of  both  the  Bell  and  Independent 
instruments;  approved  methods  of  installing  and  wiring  them; 
the  means  of  protecting  them  from  lightning  and  abnormal  cur- 
rents; their  connection  together  for  operation  as  series  or  bridg- 
ing stations;  and  rules  for  their  inspection  and  maintenance. 
Line  wiring  and  the  wiring  and  operation  of  special  telephone 
systems  are  also  treated.  180  pages,  125  illustrations.  $1.00 

WIRING  A  HOUSE.  By  HERBERT  PRATT.  Shows  a  house 
already  built;  tells  just  how  to  start  about  wiring  it.  Where  to 
begin;  what  wire  to  use;  how  to  run  it  according  to  insurance 
rules,  in  fact  just  the  information  you  need.  Directions  apply 
equally  to  a  shop.  Fourth  edition.  25  cents 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONES  AND  HOW  THEY  WORK. 

By  JAMES  ERSKINE-MURRAY.  "This  work  is  free  from  elaborate 
details  and  aims  at  giving  a  clear  survey  of  the  way  in  which 
Wireless  Telephones  work.  It  is  intended  for  amateur  workers 
and  for  those  whose  knowledge  of  Electricity  is  slight.  Chap- 
ters contained:  How  We  Hear — Historical — The  Conversion  of 
Sound  into  Electric  Waves  — Wireless  Transmission — The  Pro- 
duction of  Alternating  Currents  of  High  Frequency — How  the 
Electric  Waves  are  Radiated  and  Received — The  Receiving 
Instruments — Detectors — Achievements  and  Expectations — 
Glossary  of  Technical  Work.  Cloth.  81.00 


ENAMELING 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  RECEIPT  BOOK. 

Edited  by  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  A  work  of  10,000  practical 
receipts,  including  enameling  receipts  for  hollow  ware,  for 
metals,  for  signs,  for  china  and  porcelain,  for  wood,  etc.  Thor- 
ough and  practical.  See  page  24  for  full  description  of  this  book. 

FACTORY  MANAGEMENT,  ETC. 


MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIP- 
MENT AND  MANAGEMENT.  By  O.  E.  PERRIGO,  M.E.  A 
work  designed  for  the  practical  and  every-day  use  of  the  Archi- 
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FUEL 

COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVENTION 
OF  SMOKE.  By  WM.  M.  BARR.  To  be  a  success  a  fireman 
must  be  "Light  on  Coal."  He  must  keep  his  fire  in  good  con- 
dition, and  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  smoke  nuisance. 
To  do  this,  he  should  know  how  coal  burns,  how  smoke  is  formed 
and  the  proper  burning  of  fuel  to  obtain  the  best  results.  He 
can  learn  this,  and  more  too,  from  Barr's  "Combustion  of  Coal." 
It  is  an  absolute  authority  on  all  questions  relating  to  the  Firing 
of  a  Locomotive.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated.  $1.00 

SMOKE    PREVENTION  AND  FUEL  ECONOMY.      By 

BOOTH  and  KERSHAW.  As  the  title  indicates,  this  book  of  197 
pages  and  75  illustrations  deals  with  the  problem  of  complete 
combustion,  which  it  treats  from  the  chemical  and  mechanical 
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tarian aspects  of  the  question.  82.50 

GAS   ENGINES   AND   GAS 

CHEMISTRY  OF    GAS  MANUFACTURE.      By  H.    M. 

ROYLES.  A  practical  treatise  for  the  use  of  gas  engineers,  gas 
managers  and  students.  Including  among  its  contents — Prepa- 
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Naphthalene.  Analysis  of  Fire-Bricks  and  Fire-Clay.  Weldom 
and  Spent  Oxide.  Photometry  and  Gas  Testing.  Carbur- 
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Useful  Tables.  $4.50 

GAS  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION,  Or  How  to  Build  a  Half- 
Horse-power  Gas  Engine.  By  PARSELL  and  WEED.  A  prac- 
tical treatise  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of  the  action  of 
gas  engines  of  various  types,  and  the  design  and  construction  of  a 
half-horse-power  gas  engine,  with  illustrations  of  the  work  in 
actual  progress,  together  with  dimensioned  working  drawings  giv- 
ing clearly  the  sizes  of  the  various  details.  3  oo  pages.  82.50 

GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL  ENGINES.  By  GARDNER  D. 
Hiscox.  Just  issued,  1 8th  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  Every 
user  of  a  gas  engine  needs  this  book.  Simple,  instructive,  and 
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all  about  the  running  and  management  of  gas,  gasoline  and  oil 
engines  as  designed  and  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 
Explosive  motors  for  stationary,  marine  and  vehicle  power  are 
fully  treated,  together  with  illustrations  of  their  parts  and  tabu- 
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Ignition  by  Induction  Coil  and  Jump  Sparks  are  fully  explained 
and  illustrated,  including  valuable  information  on  the  testing  for 
economy  and  power  and  the  erection  of  power  plants. 

The  special  information  on  PRODUCER  and  SUCTION  GASES  in- 
cluded cannot  fail  to  prove  of  value  to  all  interested  in  the  gen- 
eration of  producer  gas  and  its  utilization  in  gas  engines. 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
in  regard  to  the  installation  and  management  of  Gasoline  Motors 
is  given  in  full,  suggesting  the  safe  installation  of  explosive  motor 
power.  A  list  of  United  States  Patents  issued  on  Gas,  Gasoline 
and  Oil  Engines  and  their  adjuncts  from  1875  to  date  is  included. 
484  pages.  410  engravings.  82.50  net 


MODERN  GAS  ENGINES  AND  PRODUCER  GAS 
PLANTS.  By  R.  E.  MATHOT,  M.E.  A  practical  treatise  of 
320  pages,  fully  illustrated  by  175  detailed  illustrations,  setting 
forth  the  principles  of  gas  engines  and  producer  design,  the  selec- 
tion and  installation  of  an  engine,  conditions  of  perfect  opera- 
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engines  and  producer-gas  plants,  with  a  chapter  on  volatile 
hydrocarbon  and  oil  engines.  This  book  has  been  endorsed  by 
Dugal  Clerk  as  a  most  useful  work  for  all  interested  in  Gas  Engine 
installation  and  Producer  Gas.  82.50 


GEARING   AND    CAMS 


BEVEL  GEAR  TABLES.  By  D.  AG.  ENGSTROM.  No  one 
who  has  to  do  with  bevel  gears  in  any  way  should  be  without 
this  book.  The  designer  and  draftsman  will  find  it  a  great  con- 
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the  teeth,  it  is  invaluable,  as  all  needed  dimensions  are  given 
and  no  fancy  figuring  need  be  done.  81.00 

CHANGE  GEAR  DEVICES.  By  OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO.  A 
book  for  every  designer,  draftsman  and  mechanic  who  is  inter- 
ested in  feed  changes  for  any  kind  of  machines.  This  shows  what 
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DRAFTING  OF  CAMS.  By  Louis  ROUILLION.  The 
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any  kind  of  cam  you  are  likely  to  run  up  against.  25  cents 


HYDRAULICS 


HYDRAULIC  ENGINEERING.  By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 
A  treatise  on  the  properties,  power,  and  resources  of  water  for  all 
purposes.  Including  the  measurement  of  streams;  the  flow  of 
water  in  pipes  or  conduits;  the  horse-power  of  falling  water; 
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reciprocating,  and  air-lift  pumps.  With  300  figures  and  dia- 
grams and  36  practical  tables.  320  pages.  84.00 


ICE  .  AND    REFRIGERATION 

POCKET  BOOK  OF  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE  MAK- 
ING, By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLOR.  This  is  one  of  the  latest  and 
most  comprehensive  reference  books  published  on  the  subject 
of  refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains  the  properties  and 
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ment of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the  construction  and  insula- 
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degrees  of  cold;  freezing  mixtures  and  non-freezing  brines, 
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ice,  data  and  memoranda  for  constant  reference  by  refrigerating 
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and  operation  of  a  refrigerating  plant.  81.50 


INVENTIONS— PATENTS 


INVENTOR'S  MANUAL,  HOW  TO  MAKE  A  PATENT 
PAY.  This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to  inventors  in  per- 
fecting their  inventions,  taking  out  their  patents,  and  disposing 
of  them.  It  is  not  in  any  sense  a  Patent  Solicitor's  Circular, 
nor  a  Patent  Broker's  Advertisement.  No  advertisements  of  any 
description  appear  in  the  work.  It  is  a  book  containing  a  quarter 
of  a  century's  experience  of  a  successful  inventor,  together  with 
notes  based  upon  the  experience  of  many  other  inventors.  81.00 

LATHE  PRACTICE 


MODERN  AMERICAN  LATHE  PRACTICE.  By  OSCAR 
E.  PERRIGO.  An  up-to-date  book  on  American  Lathe  Work, 
describing  and  illustrating  the  very  latest  practice  in  lathe  and 
boring-mill  operations,  as  well  as  the  construction  of  and  latest 
developments  in  the  manufacture  of  these  important  classes  of 
machine  tools.  300  pages,  fully  illustrated.  82.50 

PRACTICAL  METAL  TURNING.  By  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER. 
A  work  of  404  pages,  fully  illustrated,  covering  in  a  comprehen- 
sive manner  the  modern  practice  of  machining  metal  parts  in 
the  lathe,  including  the  regular  engine  lathe,  its  essential  design, 
its  uses,  its  tools,  its  attachments,  and  the  manner  of  holding  the 
work  and  performing  the  operations.  The  modernized  engine 
lathe,  its  methods,  tools,  and  great  range  of  accurate  work.  The 
Turret  Lathe,  its  tools,  accessories  and  methods  of  performing 
its  functions.  Chapters  on  special  work,  grinding,  tool  holders, 
speeds,  feeds,  modern  tool  steels,  etc.,  etc.  83.50 

TURNING  AND  BORING  TAPERS.  By  FRED  H.  COL- 
VIN.  There  are  two  ways  to  turn  tapers;  the  right  way  and 
one  other.  This  treatise  has  to  do  with  the  right  way;  it  tells 
you  how  to  start  the  work  properly,  how  to  set  the  lathe,  what 
tools  to  use  and  how  to  use  them,  and  forty  and  one  other  little 
things  that  you  should  know.  Fourth  edition.  25  cents 

LIQUID  AIR 

LIQUID  AIR  AND  THE  LIQUEFACTION  OF  GASES. 

By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANS.     Theory,  history,  biography,  practical 
applications,  manufacture.     365  pages.     Illustrated.  82.00 

LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINEERING 


AIR-BRAKE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT  H.  BLACKALL. 
This  book  is  a  standard  text  book.  It  covers  the  Westinghouse 
Air-Brake  Equipment,  including  the  No.  5  and  the  No.  6  E  T 
Locomotive  Brake  Equipment;  the  K  (Quick-Service)  Triple 
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The  operation  of  all  parts  of  the  apparatus  is  explained  in  detail, 
and  a  practical  way  of  finding  their  peculiarities  and  defects, 
with  a  proper  remedy,  is  given.  It  contains  2,000  questions  with 
their  answers,  which  will  enable  any  railroad  man  to  pass  any 
examination  on  the  subject  of  Air  Brakes.  Endorsed  and  used 
by  air-brake  instructors  and  examiners  on  nearly  every  rail- 
road in  the  United  States.  23$  Edition.  380  pages,  fully 
illustrated  with  folding  plates  and  diagrams.  82.00 


AMERICAN  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  By  FRED 
H.  COLVIN.  The  most  complete  book  on  compounds  published. 
Shows  all  types,  including  the  balanced  compound.  Makes 
everything  clear  by  many  illustrations,  and  shows  valve  setting, 
breakdowns  and  repairs.  142  pages.  $1.00 

APPLICATION  OF  HIGHLY  SUPERHEATED  STEAM 
TO  LOCOMOTIVES.  By  ROBERT  GARBE.  A  practical  book. 
Contains  special  chapters  on  Generation  of  Highly  Superheated 
Steam;  Superheated  Steam  and  the  Two-Cylinder  Simple 
Engine;  Compounding  and  Superheating;  Designs  of  Locomotive 
Superheaters;  Constructive  Details  of  Locomotives  using  Highly 
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trated with  folding  plates  and  tables.  S2.50 

COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVENTION 
OF  SMOKE.  By  WM.  M.  BARR.  To  be  a  success  a  fireman 
must  be  "  Light  on  Coal."  He  must  keep  his  fire  in  good  con- 
dition, and  prevent  as  far  as  possible,  the  smoke  nuisance. 
To  do  this,  he  should  know  how  coal  burns,  how  smoke  is  formed 
and  the  proper  burning  of  fuel  to  obtain  the  best  results.  He 
can  learn  this,  and  more  too,  from  Barr's  "Combination of  Coal." 
It  is  an  absolute  authority  on  all  questions  relating  to  the  Firing 
of  a  Locomotive.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated.  $1.00 

LINK  MOTIONS,  VALVES  AND  VALVE  SETTING.   By 

FRED  H.  COLVIN,  Associate  Editor  of  "American  Machinist." 
A  handy  book  that  clears  up  the  mysteries  of  valve  setting. 
Shows  the  different  valve  gears  in  use,  how  they  work,  and  why. 
Piston  and  slide  valves  of  different  types  are  illustrated  and 
explained.  A  book  that  every  railroad  man  in  the  motive- 
power  department  ought  to  have.  Fully  illustrated.  50  cents. 

LOCOMOTIVE  BOILER  CONSTRUCTION.  By  FRANK 
A.  KLEINHANS.  The  only  book  showing  how  locomotive 
boilers  are  built  in  modern  shops.  Shows  all  types  of  boilers 
used;  gives  details  of  construction;  practical  facts,  such  as 
life  of  riveting  punches  and  dies,  work  done  per  day,  allowance 
for  bending  and  flanging  sheets  and  other  data  that  means  dol- 
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folding  plates.  83.00 

LOCOMOTIVE  BREAKDOWNS  AND  THEIR  REM- 
EDIES. By  GEO.  L.  FOWLER.  Revised  by  Wm.  W.  Wood, 
Air-Brake  Instructor.  Just  issued  1910  Revised  pocket  edition. 
It  is  put  of  the  question  to  try  and  tell  you  about  every  subject 
that  is  covered  in  this  pocket  edition  of  Locomotive  Breakdowns. 
Just  imagine  all  the  common  troubles  that  an  engineer  may  ex- 
pect to  happen  some  time,  and  then  add  all  of  the  unexpected 
ones,  troubles  that  could  occur,  but  that  you  had  never  thought 
about,  and  you  will  find  that  they  are  all  treated  with  the  very 
best  methods  of  repair.  Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear 
Troubles,  Electric  Headlight  Troubles,  as  well  as  Questions  and 
Answers  on  the  Air  Brake  are  all  included.  294  pages.  Fully 
illustrated.  81.00 

LOCOMOTIVE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 
27th  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  This  may  well  be  called  an 
encyclopedia  of  the  locomotive.  Contains  over  4,000  examina- 
tion questions  with  their  answers,  including  among  them  those 
asked  at  the  First,  Second  and  Third  year's  Examinations. 
825  pages,  437  illustrations  and  3  folding  plates.  82.50 


NEW  YORK  AIR-BRAKE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT 
H.  BLACKALL.  This  is  a  complete  treatise  911  the  New  York 
Air-Brake  and  Air-Signalling  Apparatus,  giving  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  all  the  parts,  their  operation,  troubles,  and  the 
methods  of  locating  and  remedying  the  same.  200  pages,  fully 
illustrated.  81.0O 

POCKET -RAILROAD  DICTIONARY  AND  VADE  ME- 
CUM.  By  FRED  H.  COLVIN,  Associate  Editor  "American 
Machinist."  Different  from  any  hook  you  ever  saw.  Gives  clear 
and  concise  information  on  just  the  points  you  are  interested  in. 
It's  really  a  pocket  dictionary,  fully  illustrated,  and  so  arranged 
that  you  can  find  just  what  you  want  in  a  second  without  an 
index.  Whether  you  are  interested  in  Axles  or  Acetylene;  Com- 
pounds or  Counter  Balancing;  Rails  or  Reducing  Valves;  Tires 
or  Turntables,  you'll  find  them  in  this  little  book.  It's  very 
complete.  Flexible  cloth  cover,  200  pages.  $1.00 

TRAIN  RULES  AND  DESPATCHING.  By  H.  A.  DALBY. 
Contains  the  standard  code  for  both  single  and  double  track  and 
explains  how  trains  are  handled  under  all  conditions.  Gives  all 
signals  in  colors,  is  illustrated  wherever  necessary,  and  the 
most  complete  book  in  print  on  this  important  subject.  Bound 
in  fine  seal  flexible  leather.  221  pages.  81.50 

WALSCHAERT     LOCOMOTIVE     VALVE     GEAR.     By 

WM.  W.  WOOD.  If  you  would  thoroughly  understand  the 
Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  you  should  possess  a  copy  of  this  book. 
The  axtthpr  divides  the  subject  into  four  divisions,  as  follows: 
I.  Analysis  of  the  gear.  II.  Designing  and  erecting  of  the  gear 
III.  Advantages  of  the  gear.  IV.  Questions  and  answers  re 
lating  to  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear.  This  book  is  specially  valu- 
able to  those  preparing  for  promotion.  Nearly  200  pages.  $1.50 

WESTINGHOUSE  E  T  AIR-BRAKE  INSTRUCTION 
POCKET  BOOK  CATECHISM.  By  WM.  W.  Vfoov,  Air-Brako 
Instructor.  A  practical  work  containing  examination  questions 
and  answers  on  the  E  T  Equipment.  Covering  what  the  E  T 
Brake  is.  How  it  should  be  operated.  What  to  do  when  de- 
fective. Not  a  question  can  be  asked  of  the  engineman  up  for 
promotion  on  either  the  No.  5  or  the  No.  6  E  T  equipment  that 
is  not  asked  and  answered  in  the  book.  If  you  want  to  thor- 
oughly understand  the  E  T  equipment  get  a  copy  of  this  book. 
It  covers  every  detail.  Makes  Air-Brake  troubles  and  examina- 
tions easy.  Fully  illustrated  with  colored  plates,  showing 
various  pressures.  82.00 


MACHINE   SHOP    PRACTICE 


AMERICAN  TOOL  MAKING  AND  INTERCHANGE- 
ABLE MANUFACTURING.  _  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH.  A 
practical  treatise  on  the  designing,  constructing,  use,  and  in- 
stallation of  tools,  jigs,  fixtures,  devices,  special  appliances, 
sheet-metal  working  processes,  automatic  mechanisms,  and 
labor-saving  contrivances;  together  with  their  use  in  the  lathe 
milling  machine,  turret  lathe,  screw  machine,  boring  mill,  power 
press,  drill,  subpress,  drop  hammer,  etc.,  for  the  working  of 
metals,  the  production  of  interchangeable  machine  parts,  and 
the  manufacture  of  repetition  articles  of  metal.  560  pages, 
600  illustrations.  84.00 


HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  EN- 
GINEERING AND  ALLIED  TRADES.  Edited  by  JOSEPH 
G.  HORNER.  A.M.I.Mech.I.  This  work  covers  the  entire  prac- 
tice of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering.  The  best  known  ex- 
perts in  all  branches  of  engineering  have  contributed  to  these 
volumes.  The  Cyclopedia  is  admirably  well  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  beginner  and  the  self-taught  practical  man,  as  well  as  the 
mechanical  engineer,  designer,  draftsman,  shop  superintendent, 
foreman  and  machinist. 

It  is  a  modern  treatise  in  five  volumes.  Handsomely  bound 
in  Half  Morocco,  each  volume  containing  nearly  500  pages,  with 
thousands  of  illustrations,  including  diagrammatic  and  sectional 
drawings  with  full  explanatory  details.  825.00  for  the  com- 
plete set  of  five  volumes.  $6.00  per  volume,  when  ordered  singly. 

MACHINE  SHOP  ARITHMETIC.  By  COLVIN-CHENEY. 
Most  popular  book  for  shop  men.  Shows  how  all  shop  problems 
are  worked  out  and  "why."  Includes  change  gears  for  cutting 
any  threads;  drills,  taps,  shink  and  force  fits;  metric  system 
of  measurements  and  threads.  Used  by  all  classes  of  mechanics 
and  for  instruction  of  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  other  schools.  Fifth 
edition.  131  pages.  60  cents 

MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS,  POWERS,  AND  DE- 
VICES. By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  a  collection  of  1890 
engravings  of  different  mechanical  motions  and  appliances,  ac- 
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to  the  inventor,  the  draftsman,  and  to  all  readers  with  mechanical 
tastes.  The  book  is  divided  into  eighteen  sections  or  chapters 
in  which  the  subject  matter  is  classified  under  the  following 
heads:  Mechanical  Powers,  Transmission  of  Power,  Measurement 
of  Power,  Steam  Power,  Air  Power  Appliances,  Electric  Power 
and  Construction,  Navigation  and  Roads,  Gearing,  Motion  and 
Devices,  Controlling  Motion,  Horological,  Mining,  Mill  and 
Factory  Appliances,  Construction  and  Devices,  Drafting  Devices, 
Miscellaneous  Devices,  etc.  nth  edition.  400  octavo  pages. 

83.50 

MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES,  MECHANICAL  MOVE- 
MENTS AND  NOVELTIES  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  By 

GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  a  supplementary  volume  to  the 
one  upon  mechanical  movements.  Unlike  the  first  volume, 
which  is  more  elementary  in  character,  this  volume  contains 
illustrations  and  descriptions  of  many  combinations  of  motions 
and  of  mechanical  devices  and  appliances  found  in  different  lines 
of  Machinery.  Each  device  being  shown  by  a  line  drawing  with 
a  description  showing  its  working  parts  and  the  method  of  opera- 
tion. From  the  multitude  of  devices  described,  and  illustrated, 
might  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  such  items  as  conveyors  and 
elevators,  Prony  brakes,  thermometers,  various  types  of  boilers, 
solar  engines,  oil-fuel  burners,  condensers,  evaporators,  Corliss 
and  other  valve  gears,  governors,  gas  engines,  water  motors  of 
various  descriptions,  air  ships,  motors  and  dynamos,  automobile 
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i  ,000  specially  made  engravings.  396  octavo  pages.  S2.5O 

OFFFP  These  two  volumes  sell  for  $2.50  each, 
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volumes  of  Mechanical  Movements  at  one  time. 

15 


MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIP- 
MENT AND  MANAGEMENT.  By  OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO. 
The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern  Machine 
Shop  or  Manufacturing  Plant  from  the  time  the  grass  is  growing 
on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished  product  is  shipped. 
Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of 
modern  shop  buildings,  the  rebuilding  and  reorganization  of  old 
ones,  or  the  introduction  of  Modern  Shop  Methods,  Time  and 
Cost  Systems.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated  by  a  prac- 
tical shop  man  for  practical  shop  men  who  are  too  busy  to  read 
theories  and  want  facts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all-around  book 
of  its  kind  ever  published.  400  large  quarto  pages,  225  original 
and  specially-made  illustrations.  $5.00 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  TOOLS;  THEIR  CON- 
STRUCTION, OPERATION,  AND  MANIPULATION.  By 

W.  H.  VANDERVOORT.  A  work  of  555  pages  and  673  illustra- 
tions, describing  in  every  detail  the  construction,  operation,  and 
manipulation  of  both  Hand  and  Machine  Tools.  Includes 
chapters  on  filing,  fitting,  and  scraping  surfaces;  on  drills,  ream- 
ers, taps,  and  dies;  the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers,  shapers, 
and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters;  gear  cutters  and 
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chines and  their  work;  hardening  and  tempering;  gearing, 
belting  and  transmission  machinery;  useful  data  and  tables. 

$4.00 

THE  MODERN  MACHINIST.  By  JOHN  T.  USHER.  This 
book  might  be  called  a  compendium  of  shop  methods,  showing  a 
variety  of  special  tools  and  appliances  which  will  give  new  ideas 
to  many  mechanics  from  the  superintendent  down  to  the  man 
at  the  bench.  It  will  be  found  a  valuable  addition  to  any  machin- 
ist's library  and  should  be  consulted  whenever  a  new  or  difficult 
job  is  to  be  done,  whether  it  is  boring,  milling,  turning,  or  plan- 
ing, as  they  are  all  treated  in  a  practical  manner.  Fifth  edition. 
320  pages,  250  illustrations.  82.50 

MODERN  MECHANISM.  Edited  by  PARK  BENJAMIN.  A 
practical  treatise  on  machines,  motors  and  the  transmission  of 
power,  being  a  complete  work  and  a  supplementary  volume  to 
Appleton's  Cyclopedia  of  Applied  Mechanics.  Deals  solely  with 
the  principal  and  most  useful  advances  of  the  past  few  years. 
959  pages  containing  over  1,000  illustrations;  bound  in  half 
morocco.  $4.00 

MODERN  MILLING  MACHINES:  THEIR  DESIGN, 
CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  By  JOSEPH  G. 
HORNER.  This  book  describes  and  illustrates  the  Milling  Ma- 
chine and  its  work  in  such  a  plain,  clear,  and  forceful  manner, 
and  illustrates  the  subject  so  clearly  and  completely,  that  the 
up-to-date  machinist,  student,  or  mechanical  engineer  can  not 
afford  to  do  without  the  valuable  information  which  it  contains. 
It  describes  not  only  the  early  machines  of  this  class,  but  notes 
their  gradual  development  into  the  splendid  machines  of  the 
present  day,  giving  the  design  and  construction  of  the  various 
types,  forms,  and  special  features  produced  by  prominent 
manufacturers,  American  and  foreign.  304  pages,  300  illustra- 
tions. $4.00 

"  SHOP  KINKS."  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.  This  shows 
special  methods  of  doing  work  of  yarious  kinds,  and  reducing 
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shops  in  this  country  and  Europe.  You  are  almost  sure  to  find 
some  that  apply  to  your  work,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  save  time 
and  trouble.  400  pages.  Fourth  edition.  $2.50 

16 


TOOLS  FOB  MACHINISTS  AND  WOOD  WORKERS, 
INCLUDING  INSTRUMENTS  OF  MEASUREMENT.  By 

JOSEPH  G.  HORNER.  A  practical  treatise  of  340  pages,  fully 
illustrated  and  comprising  a  general  description  and  classifica- 
tion of  cutting  tools  and  tool  angles,  allied  cutting  tools  for 
machinists  and  woodworkers;  shearing  tools;  scraping  tools; 
saws;  milling  cutters;  drilling  and  boring  tools;  taps  and  dies; 
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snap,  cylindrical  and  limit  gauges;  screw  thread,  wire  and 
reference  gauges,  indicators,  templets,  etc.  83.50 

MANUAL  TRAINING 

ECONOMICS  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  By  Louis 
ROUILLION.  The  only  book  that  gives  just  the  information 
needed  by  all  interested  in  manual  training,  regarding  buildings, 
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grades  of  the  work  from  the  Kindergarten  to  the  High  and  Nor- 
mal School.  Gives  itemized  lists  of  everything  needed  and  tells 
just  what  it  ought  to  cost.  Also  shows  where  to  buy  supplies. 

MARINE   ENGINEERING 


MARINE  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS,  THEIR  DESIGN 
AND  CONSTRUCTION.  By  DR.  G.  BAUER,  LESLIE  S. 
ROBERTSON,  and  S.  BRYAN  DONKIN.  This  work  is  clearly 
written,  thoroughly  systematic,  theoretically  sound;  while  the 
character  of  its  plans,  drawings,  tables,  and  statistics  is  without 
reproach.  The  illustrations  are  careful  reproductions  from 
actual  working  drawings,  with  some  well-executed  photographic 
views  of  completed  engines  and  boilers.  89.00  net 

MINING 


DEPOSITS    OF    SOUTH    AFRICA  WITH    A 

CHAPTER  ON  HINTS  TO  PROSPECTORS.  By  J.  P.  JOHN- 
SON. This  book  gives  a  condensed  account  of  the  ore-deposits 
at  pfesent  known  in  South  Africa.  It  is  also  intended  as  a  guide 
to  the  prospector.  Only  an  elementary  knowledge  of  geology 
and  some  mining  experience  are  necessary  in  order  to  under- 
stand this  work.  With  these  qualifications,  it  will  materially 
assist  one  in  his  search  for  metalliferous  mineral  occurrences 
and,  so  far  as  simple  ores  are  concerned,  should  enable  one  to 
form  some  idea  of  the  possibilities  of  any  they  may  find. 

Among  the  chapters  given  are:  Titaniferous  and  Chromif- 
erous  Iron  Oxides — Nickel — Copper — Cobalt — Tin — Molyb- 
denum— Tungsten — Lead — Mercury — Antimony — I  r  o  n — Hints 
to  Prospectors.  Illustrated.  82.00 

PRACTICAL  COAL  MINING.  By  T.  H.  CocKlN.  An  im- 
portant work,  containing  428  pages  and  213  illustrations,  com- 
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be  in  the  hands  of  every  colliery  engineer,  geologist,  mine 
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terested in  or  connected  with  the  industry.  82.50 

17 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  MINING.      By  T.  H. 

BYROM.  A  practical  work  for  the  use  of  all  preparing  for  ex- 
aminations in  mining  or  qualifying  for  colliery  managers'  cer- 
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clearly  before  the  reader  useful  and  authoritative  data  which 
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terested in  the  present-day  treatment  of  mining  problems.  160 
pages.  Illustrated.  $3.00 

MISCELLANEOUS 

BRON ZES.  Henley's  Twentieth  Century  Receipt  Book  con- 
tains many  practical  formulas  on  bronze  casting,  imitation 
bronze,  bronze  polishes,  renovation  of  bronze.  See  page  24  Icr 
full  description  of  this  book.  83.00 

EMINENT  ENGINEERS.  By  DWIGHT  GODDARD.  Every- 
one who  appreciates  the  effect  of  such  great  inventions  as  the 
Steam  Engine,  Steamboat,  Locomotive,  Sewing  Machine,  Steel 
Working,  and  other  fundamental  discoveries,  is  interested  in 
knowing  a  little  about  the  men  who  made  them  and  their  achieve- 
ments. 

Mr.  Goddard  has  selected  thirty-two  of  the  world's  engineers 
who  have  contributed  most  largely  to  the  advancement  of  our 
civilization  by  mechanical  means,  giving  only  such  facts  as  are  of 
general  interest  and  in  a  way  which  appeals  to  all,  whether 
mechanics  or  not.  280  pages,  35  illustrations.  81.50 

LAWS  OF  BUSINESS,  By  THEOPHILUS  PARSONS,  LL.D. 
The  Best  Book  for  Business  Men  ever  Published.  Treats  clearly 
of  Contracts,  Sales,  Notes,  Bills  of  Exchange,  Agency,  Agree- 
ment, Stoppage  in  Transitu,  Consideration,  Limitations,  Leases, 
Partnership,  Executors,  Interest,  Hotel  Keepers,  Fire  and  Life 
Insurance,  Collections,  Bonds,  Frauds,  Receipts,  Patents,  Deeds, 
Mortgages,  Liens,  Assignments,  Minors,  Married  Women,  Arbi- 
tration, Guardians,  Wills,  etc.  Three  Hundred  Approved  Forms 
are  given.  Every  Business  Man  should  have  a  copy  of  this  book 
for  ready  reference.  The  book  is  bound  in  full  sheep,  and  Con- 
tains 864  Octavo  Pages.  Our  special  price.  83.50 

PATTERN   MAKING 


PRACTICAL  PATTERN  MAKING.  By  F.  W.  BARROWS. 
This  is  a  very  complete  and  entirely  practical  treatise  on  the 
subject  of  pattern  making,  illustrating  pattern  work  in  wood  and 
metal.  From  its  pages  you  are  taught  just  what  you  should 
know  about  pattern  making.  It  contains  a  detailed  description 
of  the  materials  used  by  pattern  makers,  also  the  tools,  both 
those  for  hand  use,  and  the  more  interesting  machine  tools;  hav- 
ing complete  chapters  on  The  Band  Saw,  The  Buzz  Saw,  and  The 
Lathe.  Individual  patterns  of  many  different  kinds  are  fully 
illustrated  and  described,  and  the  mounting  of  metal  patterns  on 
plates  for  molding  machines  is  included.  82.00 

PERFUMERY 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RE- 
CEIPTS, FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES.  Edited  by  G.  D. 
Hiscox.  The  most  valuable  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book 
published.  Contains  over  10,000  practical  Receipts  many  of 
which  will  prove  of  special  value  to  the  perfumer,  a  mine  of  in- 
formation, up  to  date  in  every  respect.  Cloth,  83.00;  half 
morocco.  See  page  24  for  full  description  of  this  book.  84.00 

18 


PERFUMES  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION.      By  G.  W. 

ASKINSON,  Perfumer.  A  comprehensive  treatise,  in  which 
there  has  been  nothing  omitted  that  could  be  of  value  to  the 
Perfumer.  Complete  directions  for  making  handkerchief  per- 
fumes, smelling-salts,  sachets,  fumigating  pastilles;  preparations 
for  the  care  of  the  skin,  the  mouth,  the  hair,  cosmetics,  hair  dyes 
and  other  toilet  articles  are  given,  also  a  detailed  description 
of  aromatic  substances;  their  nature,  tests  of  purity,  and 
wholesale  manufacture.  A  book  of  general,  as  well  as  profes- 
sional interest,  meeting  the  wants  not  only  of  the  druggist  and 
perfume  manufacturer,  but  also  of  the  general  public.  Third 
edition.  312  pages.  Illustrated.  83.00 


PLUMBING 


MODERN  PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED.       By     R      M. 

STARBUCK.  The  author  of  this  book,  Mr.  R.  M.  Starbuck,  is  one 
of  the  leading  authorities  on  plumbing  in  the  United  States.  The 
book  represents  the  highest  standard  of  plumbing  work.  It  has 
been  adopted  and  used  as  a  reference  book  by  the  United  States 
Government,  in  its  sanitary  work  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippines,  and  by  the  principal  Boards  of  Health  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

It  gives  Connections,  Sizes  and  Working  Data  for  All  Fixtures 
and  Groups  of  Fixtures.  It  is  helpful  to  the  Master  Plumber  in 
Demonstrating  to  his  customers  and  in  figuring  work.  It  gives 
the  Mechanic  and  Student  quick  and  easy  Access  to  the  best 
Modern  Plumbing  Practice.  Suggestions  for  Estimating  Plumb- 
ing Construction  are  contained  in  its  pages.  This  book  repre- 
sents, in  a  word,  the  latest  and  best  up-to-date  practice,  and 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  architect,  sanitary  engineer 
and  plumber  who  wishes  to  keep  himself  up  to  the  minute  on  this 
important  feature  of  construction.  400  octavo  pages, '  fully 
illustrated  by  55  full- page  engravings.  84.00 


RUBBER 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RE- 
CEIPTS, FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES.  Edited  by  GARD- 
NER D.  Hiscox.  Contains  upward  of  10,000  practical  receipts, 
including  among  them  formulas  on  artificial  rubber.  See  page 
24  for  full  description  of  this  book.  83.00 


RUBBER  HAND  STAMPS  AND  THE  MANIPULATION 
OF  INDIA  RUBBER.  By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  This  book 
gives  full  details  on  all  points,  treating  in  a  concise  and  simple 
manner  the  elements  of  nearly  everything  it  is  necessary  to  under- 
stand for  a  commencement  in  any  branch  of  the  India  Rubber 
Manufacture.  The  making  of  all  kinds  of  Rubber  Hand  Stamps, 
Small  Articles  of  India  Rubber,  U.  S.  Government  Composi- 
tion, Dating  Hand  Stamps,  the  Manipulation  of  Sheet  Rubber, 
Toy  Balloons,  India  Rubber  Solutions,  Cements,  Blackings, 
Renovating  Varnish,  and  Treatment  for  India  Rubber  Shoes, 
etc.;  the  Hektograph  Stamp  Inks,  and  Miscellaneous  Notes, 
with  a  Short  Account  of  the  Discovery,  Collection,  and  Manufac- 
ture of  India  Rubber  are  set  forth  in  a  manner  designed  to  be 
readily  understood,  the  explanations  being  plain  and  simple. 
Second  edition.  144  pages.  Illustrated.  81.00 

19 


SAWS 

SAW    FILING  AND    MANAGEMENT  OF  SAWS.      By 

ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.  A  practical  hand  book  on  filing,  gumming, 
swaging,  hammering,  and  the  brazing  of  band  saws,  the  speed, 
work,  and  power  to  run  circular  saws,  etc.  A  handy  book  for 
those  who  have  charge  of  saws,  or  for  those  mechanics  who  do 
their  own  filing,  as  it  deals  with  the  proper  shape  and  pitches  of 
saw  teeth  of  all  kinds  and  gives  many  useful  hints  and  rules  for 
gumming,  setting,  and  filing,  and  is  a  practical  aid  to  those  who 
use  saws  for  any  purpose.  New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
Illustrated.  $1.00 

SCREW  CUTTING 


THREADS  AND  THREAD  CUTTING.  By  COLVIN  and 
STABEL.  This  clears  up  many  of  the  mysteries  of  thread- 
cutting,  such  as  double  and  triple  threads,  internal  threads,  catch- 
ing threads,  use  of  hobs,  etc.  Contains  a  lot  of  useful  hints  and 
several  tables.  25  cents 

SHEET   METAL   WORK 

DIES,  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  FOR  THE 
MODERN  WORKING  OF  SHEET  METALS.  By  J.  V. 

WOODWORTH.  A  new  book  by  a  practical  man,  for  those  who 
wish  to  know  the  latest  practice  in  the  working  of  sheet  metals. 
It  shows  how  dies  are  designed,  made  and  used,  and  those  who 
are  engaged  in  this  line  of  work  can  secure  many  valuable 
suggestions.  $3.00 

PUNCHES,  DIES  AND  TOOLS  FOR  MANUFACTUR- 
ING IN  PRESSES.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH.  A  work  of  500 
pages  and  illustrated  by  nearly  700  engravings,  being  an  en- 
cyclopedia of  die-making,  punch-making,  die  sinking,  sheet- 
metal  working,  and  making  of  special  tools,  subpresses,  devices 
and  mechanical  combinations  for  punching,  cutting,  bending, 
forming,  piercing,  drawing,  compressing,  and  assembling  sheet- 
metal  parts  and  also  articles  of  other  materials  in  machine  tools. 

$4.00 

STEAM   ENGINEERING 


AMERICAN  STATIONARY  ENGINEERING.      By  W. 

E.  CRANE.  A  new  book  by  a  well-known  author.  Begins  at 
the  boiler  room  and  takes  in  the  whole  power  plant.  Contains 
the  result  of  years  of  practical  experience  in  all  sorts  of  engine 
rooms  and  gives  exact  information  that  cannot  be  found  else- 
where. It's  plain  enough  for  practical  men  and  yet  of  value  to 
those  high  in  the  profession.  Has  a  complete  examination  for  a 
license.  $3.00 

*  BOILER  ROOM  CHART.  By  GEO.  L.  FOWLER.  A  Chart 
— size  14x28  inches — showing  in  isometric  perspective  the 
mechanisms  belonging  in  a  modern  boiler  room.  Water  tube 
boilers,  ordinary  grates  and  mechanical  stokers,  feed  water 
heaters  and  pumps  comprise  the  equipment.  The  various  parts 
are  shown  broken  or  removed,  so  that  the  internal  construction 
is  fully  illustrated.  Each  part  is  given  a  reference  number,  and 
these,  with  the  corresponding  name,  are  given  in  a  glossary 
printed  at  the  sides.  This  chart  is  really  a  dictionary  of  the 
boiler  room — the  names  of  more  than  200  parts  being  given. 
It  is  educational — worth  many  times  its  cost.  25  cents 


ENGINE  RUNNER'S  CATECHISM.  By  RpuERT  GRIM- 
SHAW.  Tells  how  to  erect,  adjust,  and  run  the  principal  steam 
engines  in  use  in  the  United  States.  The  work  is  of  a  handy 
size  for  the  pocket.  To  young  engineers  this  catechism  will  be 
of  great  value,  especially  to  those  who  may  be  preparing  to  go 
forward  to  be  examined  for  certificates  of  competency;  and 
to  engineers  generally  it  will  be  of  no  little  service  as  they  will 
find  in  this  volume  more  really  practical  and  useful  information 
than  is  to  be  found  anywhere  else  within  a  like  compass.  387 
pages.  Sixth  edition.  $3.00 

ENGINE    TESTS  AND    BOILER  EFFICIENCIES.     By 

J.  BUCHETTI.  This  work  fully  describes  and  illustrates  the 
method  of  testing  the  power  of  steam  engines,  turbine  and 
explosive  motors.  The  properties  of  steam  and  the  evapora- 
tive power  of  fuels.  Combustion  of  fuel  and  chimney  draft; 
with  formulas  explained  or  practically  computed.  255  pages, 
179  illustrations.  $3.00 

HORSE  POWER  CHART.  Shows  the  horse  power  of  any 
stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter  what  the 
cylinder  diameter  or  stroke;  the  steam  pressure  or  cut-off;  the 
revolutions,  or  whether  condensing  or  non-condensing,  it's  all 
there.  Easy  to  use,  accurate,  and  saves  time  and  calculations. 
Especially  useful  to  engineers  and  designers.  50  cents 

MODERN  STEAM  ENGINEERING  IN  THEORY  AND 
PRACTICE.  By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  a  complete  and 
practical  work  issued  for  Stationary  Engineers  and  Firemen 
dealing  with  the  care  and  management  of  Boilers,  Engines, 
Pumps,  Superheated  Steam,  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Dyna- 
mos, Motors,  Elevators,  Air  Compressors,  and  all  other  branches 
with  which  the  modern  Engineer  must  be  familiar.  Nearly 
200  Questions  with  their  Answers  on  Steam  and  Electrical 
Engineering,  likely  to  be  asked  by  the  Examining  Board,  are 
included.  487  pages,  405  engravings.  $3.00 

STEAM  ENGINE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERTGRIMSHAW. 
This  volume  of  413  pages  is  not  only  a  catechism  on  the  question 
and  answer  principle;  but  it  contains  formulas  and  worked-out 
answers  for  all  the  Steam  problems  that  appertain  to  the  opera- 
tion and  management  of  the  Steam  Engine.  Illustrations  of 
various  valves  and  valve  gear  with  their  principles  of  operation 
are  given.  34  tables  that  are  indispensable  to  every  engineer  and 
fireman  that  wishes  to  be  progressive  and  is  ambitious  to  become 
master  of  his  calling  are  within  its  pages.  It  is  a  most  valuable 
instructor  in  the  service  of  Steam  Engineering.  Leading  en- 
gineers have  recommended  it  as  a  valuable  educator  for  the  be- 
ginner as  well  as  a  reference  book  for  the  engineer.  Sixteenth 
edition.  $2.00 

STEAM  ENGINEER'S  ARITHMETIC.  By  COLVIN- 
CHENEY.  A  practical  pocket  book  for  the  Steam  Engineer. 
Shows  how  to  work  the  problems  of  the  engine  room  and  shows 
"why."  Tells  how  to  figure  horse -power  of  engines  and  boilers; 
area  of  boilers;  has  tables  of  areas  and  circumferences;  steam 
tables;  has  a  dictionary  of  engineering  terms.  Puts  you  onto 
all  of  the  little  kinks  in  figuring  whatever  there  is  to  figure 
around  a  power  plant.  Tells  you  about  the  heat  unit;  absolute 
zero;  adiabatic  expansion;  duty  of  engines;  factor  of  safety; 
and  1,001  other  things;  and  everything  is  plain  and  simple — 
not  the  hardest  way  to  figure,  but  the  easiest.  50  cents 

21 


STEAM  HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 

PRACTICAL,  STEAM,  HOT -WATER  HEATING  AND 
VENTILATION.  By  A.  G.  KING.  This  book  is  the  standard 
and  latest  work  published  on  the  subject  and  has  been  prepared 
for  the  use  of  all  engaged  in  the  business  of  steam,  hot-water 
heating  and  ventilation.  It  is  an  original  and  exhaustive  work. 
Tells  how  to  get  heating  contracts,  how  to  install  heating  and 
ventilating  apparatus,  the  best  business  methods  to  be  used,  with 
"Tricks  of  the  Trade"  for  shop  use.  Rules  and  data  for  esti- 
mating radiation  and  cost  and  such  tables  and  information  as 
make  it  an  indispensable  work  for  everyone  interested  in  steam , 
hot-water  heating  and  ventilation.  It  describes  all  the  principal 
systems  of  steam,  hot-water,  vacuum,  vapor  and  vacuum- 
vapor  heating,  together  with  the  new  accelerated  systems  of 
hot -water  circulation,  including  chapters  on  up-to-date  methods 
of  ventilation  and  the  fan  or  blower  system  of  heating  and  venti- 
lation. 

You  should  secure  a  copy  of  this  book,  as  each  chapter  con- 
tains a  mine  of  practical  information.  367  pages,  300  detailed 
engravings.  S3. 00 

STEAM  PIPES 


STEAM  PIPES:  THEIR  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUC- 
TION. By  WM.  H.  BOOTH.  The  work  is  well  illustrated  in  regard 
to  pipe  joints,  expansion  off  sets,  flexible  joints,  and  self-contained 
sliding  joints  for  taking  up  the  expansion  of  long  pipes.  In  fact, 
the  chapters  on  the  flow  of  Steam  and  expansion  of  pipes  are  most 
valuable  to  all  steam  fitters  and  users.  The  pressure  strength  of 
pipes  and  method  of  hanging  them  is  well  treated  and  illustrated. 
Valves  and  by-passes  are  fully  illustrated  and  described,  as  are 
also  flange  joints  and  their  proper  proportions.  Exhaust  heads 
and  separators.  One  of  the  most  valuable  chapters  is  that  on 
superheated  steam  and  the  saving  of  steam  by  insulation  with 
the  various  kinds  of  felting  and  other  materials,  with  comparison 
tables  of  the  loss  of  heat  in  thermal  units  from  naked  and  felted 
steam  pipes.  Contains  187  pages.  $2.00 

STEEL 


AMERICAN  STEEL  WORKER.  By  E.  R.  MARKHAM. 
The  standard  work  on  hardening,  tempering  and  annealing  steel 
of  all  kinds.  A  practical  book  for  the  machinist,  tool  maker  or 
superintendent.  Shows  just  how  to  secure  best  results  in  any 
case  that  comes  along.  How  to  make  and  use  furnaces  and  case 
harden;  how  to  handle  high-speed  steel  and  how  to  temper  for  all 
classes  of  work.  82.50 

HARDENING,  TEMPERING,  ANNEALING,  AND 
FORGING  OF  STEEL.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH.  A  new  book 
containing  special  directions  for  the  successful  hardening  and 
tempering  of  all  steel  tools.  Milling  cutters,  taps,  thread  dies, 
reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow  mills,  punches  and  dies, 
and  all  kinds  of  sheet-metal  working  tools,  shear  blades,  saws, 
fine  cutlery  and  metal-cutting  tools  of  all  descriptions,  as  well 
as  for  all  implements  of  steel  both  large  and  small,  the  simplest, 
and  most  satisfactory  hardening  and  tempering  processes  are 
presented.  The  uses  to  which  the  leading  brands  of  steel  may  be 
adapted  are  concisely  presented,  and  their  treatment  for  work- 
ing under  different  conditions  explained,  as  are  also  the  special 
methods  for  the  hardening  and  tempering  of  special  brands. 
320  pages,  250  illustrations.  82.50 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RE- 
CEIPTS, FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES.  Edited  by  GARD- 
NER D.  Hiscox.  The  most  valuable  techno-chemical  Receipt 
book  published,  giving,  among  other  practical  receipts,  methods 
of  annealing,  coloring,  tempering,  welding,  plating,  polishing 
and  cleaning  steel.  See  page  24  for  full  description  of  this  book. 

83.00 

WATCH   MAKING 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RE- 
CEIPTS, FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES.  Edited  by 
GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  Contains  upwards  of  10,000  practical 
formulas  including  many  watchmakers'  formulas.  83.00 

WATCHMAKER'S  HANDBOOK.  By  CLAUDIUS  SAUNIER. 
No  work  issued  can  compare  with  this  book  for  clearness  and 
completeness.  It  contains  498  pages  and  is  intended  as  a  work- 
shop companion  for  those  engaged  in  Watchmaking  and  allied 
Mechanical  Arts.  Nearly  250  engravings  and  fourteen  plates 
are  included.  $3.00 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONES 


WIRELESS  TELEPHONES   AND   HOW  THEY  WORK. 

By  JAMES  ERSKINE-MURRAY.  This  work  is  free  from  elaborate 
details  and  aims  at  giving  a  clear  survey  of  the  way  in  which 
Wireless  Telephones  work.  It  is  intended  for  amateur  workers 
and  for  those  whose  knowledge  of  Electricity  is  slight.  Chap- 
ters contained:  How  We  Hear — Historical — The  Conversion  of 
Sound  into  Electric  Waves — Wireless  Transmission — The  Pro- 
duction of  Alternating  Currents  of  High  Frequency — How  the 
Electric  Waves  are  Radiated  and  Received — The  Receiving 
Instruments — Detectors — Achievements  and  Expectations — 
Glossary  of  Technical  Words.  Cloth.  81.00 


Henley's  Twentieth  Century 

Book  of 

Recipes,  Formulas 
and  Processes 

Edited  by  GARDNER  D.  HISCOX,  M.E. 
Price  $3. 00  Cloth  Binding  $4. 00  Half  Morocco  Binding 

Contains  over  10,000  Selected  Scientific,  Chemical, 

Technological  and  Practical  Recipes  and 

Processes,  including  Hundreds  of 

So-Called  Trade  Secrets 

for  Every  Business 

THIS  book  of  800  pages  is  the  most  complete  Book  of 
Recipes  ever  published,  giving  thousands  of  recipes 
for  the  manufacture  of  valuable  articles  for  every-day 
use.     Hints,  Helps,  Practical  Ideas  and  Secret  Processes 
are  revealed  within  its  pages.     It  covers  every  branch  of 
the  useful  arts  and  tells  thousands  of  ways  of  making 
money  and  is  just  the  book  everyone  should  have  at  his 
command. 

The  pages  are  filled  with  matters  of  intense  interest  and 
immeasurable  practical  value  to  the  Photographer,  the 
Perfumer,  the  Painter,  the  Manufacturer  of  Glues,  Pastes, 
Cements  and  Mucilages,  the  Physician,  the  Druggist,  the 
Electrician,  the  Brewer,  the  Engineer,  the  Foundryman, 
the  Machinist,  the  Potter,  the  Tanner,  the  Confectioner, 
the  Chiropodist,  the  Manufacturer  of  Chemical  Novelties 
and  Toilet  Preparations,  the  Dyer,  the  Electroplater, 
the  Enameler,  the  Engraver,  the  Provisioner,  the  Glass 
Worker,  the  Goldbeater,  the  Watchmaker  and  Jeweler, 
the  Ink  Manufacturer,  the  Optician,  the  Farmer,  the  Dairy- 
man, the  Paper  Maker,  the  Metal  Worker, the  Soap  Maker, 
the  Veterinary  Surgeon,  and  the  Technologist  in  general. 
A  book  to  which  you  may  turn  with  confidence  that  you 
will  find  what  you  are  looking  for.  A  mine  of  informa- 
tion up-to-date  in  every  respect.  Contains  an  immense 
number  of  formulas  that  every  one  ought  to  have  that  are 
not  found  in  any  other  work. 


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rEB09  1990 

BT8WJCJW(25'9C 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
FORM  NO.  DD6  BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


cooucnaoflfl 


